A system of objects can be characterized by its total energy, a scalar that is the sum of the kinetic energy (due to large-scale relative motion of parts of the system), its potential energy (due to the relative position of interacting parts of the system), and its microscopic internal energy (due to relative motion and interactions at the molecular and atomic levels of the parts of the system). A single object does not possess potential energy. Rather, the system of which the object is a part has potential energy due to the interactions and relative positions of its constituent objects. In general, kinetic, potential, and internal energies can be changed by interactions with other objects or other systems that transfer energy into or out of the system under study. An external force exerted on an object parallel to the displacement of the object transfers energy into or out of the system. For a force that is constant in magnitude and direction, the product of the magnitude of the parallel force component and the magnitude of the displacement is called the work. For a constant or variable force, the work can be calculated by finding the area under the force versus displacement graph. The force component parallel to the displacement gives the rate of transfer of energy with respect to displacement. Work can result in a change in kinetic energy, potential energy, or internal energy of a system. Positive work transfers
There are two mechanisms by which energy transfers into (or out of) a system. One is when the environment does work on the system (defined as positive work on the system), or the system does work on its environment (defined as negative work on the system). The other is when energy is exchanged between two systems at different temperatures, with no work involved. The amount of energy transferred through work done on or by a system is called work and the amount of energy transferred by heating a system is called heat. Work and heat are not "kinds" of energy (like potential or kinetic), rather they are the specific amount of energy transferred by each process. Summing work and heat gives the change in a system’s energy.
Classically, mass conservation and energy conservation are separate laws; but in modern physics we recognize that the mass of a system changes when its energy changes so that a transfer of energy into a system entails an increase in the mass of that system as well, although in most processes the change in mass is small enough to be ignored. The relationship between the mass and energy of
a system is described by Einstein’s famous equation, . The large energies
produced during nuclear fission and fusion processes correspond to small reductions in the mass of a system.
Boundary Statement: Thermodynamics is treated in
Physics 2 only. p h y s ic s
1 Essential Knowledge 4.C.1: The energy of a system includes its
kinetic energy, potential energy, and microscopic internal energy. Examples should include gravitational potential energy, elastic potential energy, and kinetic energy.
Learning Objective 4.C.1.1:
The student is able to calculate the total energy of a system and justify the mathematical routines used in the calculation of component types of energy within the system whose sum is the total energy.
[See Science Practices 1.4, 2.1, and 2.2]
Learning Objective 4.C.1.2:
The student is able to predict changes in the total energy of a system due to changes in position and speed of objects or frictional interactions within the system.
[See Science Practice 6.4]
p h y s ic s
1 Essential Knowledge 4.C.2: Mechanical energy (the sum of kinetic
and potential energy) is transferred into or out of a system when an external force is exerted on a system such that a component of the force is parallel to its displacement. The process through which the energy is transferred is called work. a. If the force is constant during a given displacement, then
the work done is the product of the displacement and the component of the force parallel or antiparallel to the displacement.
b. Work (change in energy) can be found from the area under a graph of the magnitude of the force component parallel to the displacement versus displacement.
Learning Objective 4.C.2.1:
The student is able to make predictions about the changes in the mechanical energy of a system when a component of an external force acts parallel or antiparallel to the direction of the displacement of the center of mass.
[See Science Practice 6.4]
Learning Objective 4.C.2.2:
The student is able to apply the concepts of conservation of energy and the work-energy theorem to determine qualitatively and/or quantitatively that work done on a two-object system in linear motion will change the kinetic energy of the center of mass of the system, the potential energy of the systems, and/or the internal energy of the system.
Essential Knowledge 4.C.3: Energy is transferred spontaneously from
a higher temperature system to a lower temperature system. This process of transferring energy is called heating. The amount of energy transferred is called heat.
a. Conduction, convection, and radiation are mechanisms for this energy transfer.
b. At a microscopic scale the mechanism of conduction is the transfer of kinetic energy between particles.
c. During average collisions between molecules, kinetic energy is transferred from faster molecules to slower molecules.
p h y s ic s 2 Learning Objective 4.C.3.1:
The student is able to make predictions about the direction of energy transfer due to temperature differences based on interactions at the microscopic level.
[See Science Practice 6.4]
Essential Knowledge 4.C.4: Mass can be converted into energy, and
energy can be converted into mass.
a. Mass and energy are interrelated by .
b. Significant amounts of energy can be released in nuclear processes. p h y s ic s 2 Learning Objective 4.C.4.1:
The student is able to apply mathematical routines to describe the relationship between mass and energy and apply this concept across domains of scale.
[See Science Practices 2.2, 2.3, and 7.2]