Observations

Observations were generally very useful in enabling the researcher to obtain what Hopkins (2008:79-80) profoundly describes as “in-depth information” regarding the studied phenomena in the field (see also Chapter 4, paragraph 4.9). Observations are a helpful means of systematic classroom data collection. Technically speaking, field observations in research make researchers understand research participants better. In addition, observations involve the researcher in participation and reflection with regard to classroom activities aimed at collecting data. According to Hopkins (2008:79-80), participant observations are referred to as “partnership observations”, “open observations”, “focused observations” or “structured observations.”

The researcher drew up an observation guide covering the issues to be observed in the basic schools (see Appendices 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5). The purpose of gathering observational data from the field (Graziano & Raulin 2000: 29,131) was to understand the observed settings, the discernible daily experiences and the activities that took place in the studied basic schools. Detailed information is provided of how observations were applied to gather extensive information from the field (Chapter 4 paragraph 4.9).

1.5.3.3 Field notes

Jacques and Hyland (2007: 56) refer to field notes as a “field diary” (see Chapter 4 paragraph 4.10). Recording field notes is a way of reporting observations, reflections and reactions to classroom problems (Hopkins 2008:104). Field notes were particularly used by the researcher to record events that took place during the observations. Field notes (note taking) in the field shed light on what occurred at the studied basic schools, recording the conversations and other interactions, making descriptions of the participants, the setting and the discernible school environment. According to White (2005:163), other techniques related to field notes include note taking or keeping a field diary and what Jacques and Hyland (2007:55) refer to as “recording”. According to Denscombe (2007:285), taking field notes is a useful data collection technique in the field of study, an essentially critical step in the research report.

27 1.5.3.4 Document analysis

The school records and institutional documents such as journals, reference books, articles, memos, communiqués, correspondences, statutory instruments, policy documents, teaching and learning documents (syllabi, schemes of work, weekly forecasts, lesson plans), minutes on academic, professional and staff meetings, and others were examined to support the collection and compilation of data for analysis. Reference is made in Chapter 4 paragraph 4.11 on how the document analysis was carried out to collect data for analysis.

1.6 CLARIFICATION OF CONCEPTS

The basic concepts used in the research are presented as follows:

Change: is the planned and systematic process involved in the modification and transformation of a phenomenon aiming at attaining the formulated educational goals (CACC 2002:179). (See also the presentation, discussion and definitions of the terms in Chapter 2, paragraphs 2.2, 2.3 and 2.4).

Change agent: refers to individuals or groups that are involved in the change processes (CACC 2002:4; Schollaert & Leenheer 2006:272). (See also discussion and definitions of the terms in Chapter 2, paragraphs 2.2, 2.3 and 2.4).

Curriculum: refers to the teaching and learning programmes or activities designed for instruction at an institution of learning (Ministry of Education 2000a:17). (See also discussion and definitions of the terms in Chapter 2 paragraphs 2.2, 2.3 and 2.4).

Curriculum change: refers to the modification or transformations made for the teaching and learning programmes in the national and school curriculum (Ministry of Education 2000a:17). (See also discussion and definitions of the terms in Chapter 2, paragraphs 2.2, 2.3 and 2.4).

Management: is concerned with the progressive processes and procedures of sustaining the implementation and interpreting institutional or organisational objectives, visions, mission, targets and goals to be achieved and accomplished effectively (Lindhoud 2000:30; Schollaert

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& Leenheer 2006:272). (See also discussion and definitions of the terms in Chapter 2, paragraphs 2.2, 2.3 and 2.4).

Managing change: refers to the systematic and the basic techniques or skills that school managers use to implement change in the aspirations, vision, objectives and the mission statement intended to make educational programmes run effectively at any school, organisation or institutional set up (Tomlinson, Brimijoin & Narvaez 2008:185; Schollaert & Leenheer 2006:121). (See also discussion and definitions of the terms in Chapter 2, paragraphs 2.2, 2.3 and 2.4).

Organisational change: is concerned with changes that involve the changing working culture of an organisation (CACC 2002:3-5). It is a co-ordinated alteration of activities to achieve the goals and objectives of the organisation in which the vision is shared among members of the organisation and where tasks, responsibilities, work roles and relationships and channels of communication are all well-defined (Blandford 1997:44). (See also discussion and definitions of the terms in Chapter 2, paragraphs 2.2, 2.3 and 2.4).

Organisational development: refers to the processes that involve the effective interpretation of the organisational structure and the implementation of the co-ordinated division of work and activities to achieve the goals and objectives of the organisation, where the developmental vision of the organisation is shared among members of the organisation and responsibilities, work roles and relationships, and channels of communication are evaluated critically (Blandford 1997:44). (See also discussion and definitions of the terms in Chapter 2, paragraphs 2.2, 2.3 and 2.4).

Performance: refers to the total functional indicators that reflect the designed practical and purposeful achievements of the school or institutional activities (Schollaert & Leenheer 2006:272; Lindhoud 2000:35). (See also discussion and definitions of the terms in Chapter 2, paragraphs 2.2, 2.3 and 2.4).

Planned change: refers to the carefully calculated processes of organisational modifications and transformations focused on seeking rational improvement (CACC 2002:1-10). (See also discussion and definitions of the terms in Chapter 2, paragraphs 2.2, 2.3 and 2.4).

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Supervision: involves the managerial or administrative processes of inspecting the progressive institutional activities, behaviours, knowledge, skills, attitudes and performance on learning achievements (Lindhoud 2000:35). It involves interpersonal interaction with the aim that one person, the supervisor, should meet with another person, the supervisee, in an effort to make the latter more effective with regard to the development of skills, gaining understanding and developing his/her abilities (Schollaert & Leenheer 2006:272). (See also discussion and definitions of the terms in Chapter 2, paragraphs 2.2, 2.3 and 2.4).

1.7 CHAPTER DIVISION

An overview of the study is provided in this paragraph. The study was divided into six chapters as follows:

Chapter one comprises the background information on the study, covering the statement of the research problem, the research aims of the study, a justification of or motivation for the study, and briefly highlights the research design and methodology of the study.

Chapter two, the first part of the literature study, comprises the conceptual framework which is related to the topic. The conceptual framework reflects the generic theories on the theme by examining what other scholars and writers had stated about the research topic. The researcher drew on relevant theories and linked them to other studies conducted on the topic to synchronize varied opinions and thoughts.

Chapter three, the second part of the literature study, offers an account of what other international researchers found on how curriculum management was conducted internationally. The sources made the researcher gain more information on the management of curriculum change and change processes.

The fourth chapter contains the research design, the approaches and techniques that were used by the researcher to gather data from the field of study.

The fifth chapter presents the discussions of the research findings as well as the analyses of the results of the empirical study.

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Chapter six is concerned with answering the research question and the sub-questions presented in Chapter one. It contains a summation of the research by summarizing the research findings and recommendations.

1.8 CONCLUSION

In chapter 1 a background of the study is provided regarding the management of curriculum change in the studied basic schools in Mongu Township in Zambia. An overview of educational programmes and policy changes that were experienced in Zambia from independence (1964) to the present day is provided. The research problem of the study is given as well as the research aim. A brief account of the research design and research techniques comprising semi-structured and unstructured interviews, focus group interviews, observations and document analysis is presented. Lastly, some key concepts and the structure of the research are explained in this chapter.

Educational and management issues related to the conceptual framework of the study are covered in the next chapter.

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CHAPTER TWO

A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF CURRICULUM CHANGE

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Chapter one contained the introduction and background of the study, the research aims and a brief account of the research methodology and design. Chapter two provides the conceptual framework for the study as generic interpretations and analyses on the research topic are presented. Onwuegbuzie, Leech and Collins (2012:1) remark that a literature study allows the researcher to distinguish which studies have been done by other researchers on a subject in question. In a conceptual framework literature study, the researcher identifies factors that are relevant to the research undertaken, identifies possible links between theory and practice, finds good research, avoids unnecessary duplications, identifies the main research methods and designs in other studies, identifies inconsistencies and contradictions, advantages and disadvantages of approaches by other researchers (Onwnegbuzie, Leech & Collins 2012:1).

The study relies on general management theory from which the study derived its conceptual framework, a part of which also serves as the lens or theoretical framework for understanding the phenomenon. Thereby researcher was familiarised with the development of knowledge in the area of research. The researcher was kept abreast with the gaps which prevailed in the knowledge and the identified weaknesses in the previous conducted studies. The conceptual framework review provided the researcher with an opportunity for discovering connections between research results, as some scholars postulate (Mutombo & Mwenda 2010:1; Dellinger 2005: 41-54; Galvan 2009:46; Green, Johnson & Adams 2006:101-114; Hart 2008:67; Christopher 2012:85). The literature review in this chapter assisted the researcher to identify variables that needed to be considered in the research and those which were perceived as irrelevant to the study. The researcher was able to comprehend the definitions and concepts to be used (Mutombo & Mwenda 2010:1). The role of a literature review is to describe theoretical and conceptual perspectives and previous research findings regarding the problem at hand (Dellinger 2005: 41-54; Galvan 2009:56; Green, Johnson & Adams 2006:101-114; Hart 2008:77 Christopher 2012:75).

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The decision to reflect on other writers’ notions and viewpoints helps the researcher to assess what Briggs and Coleman (2007:98-99) refer to as the “credibility, applicability, reliability and trustworthiness” of the research findings. Three fundamental research concepts have been used in this study. These research concepts comprise: ‘management,’ ‘change’ and ‘curriculum.’ The researcher discussed these basic research concepts in detail to allow the reader to have a clearer understanding of how the concepts become relevant in managing curriculum change (see paragraphs 2.2, 2.3, 2.4). The other emerging functional concepts that will comprise the focus of this study are also discussed in this chapter.

The above stated three fundamental research concepts are closely integrated in the described management functions model for managing curriculum change (see Fig. 2.1). There are several core management functions that all school managers need to perform proficiently in their schools to manage curriculum change effectively. These core management functions include:

planning, organising, leadership and controlling. These concepts not only form a part of the

conceptual framework of the study, but also provide a theoretical lens or framework for understanding the phenomenon discussed. Controlling encompasses and pertains to supervising, monitoring and evaluation. The management functions model is aligned to these core management concepts to elicit the processes of change (see Fig. 2.1).

Harris (2007:1) claims that there are a number of external and internal forces that exert the management pressure faced by most school managers in various educational circumstances with regard to the management of curriculum change. This also applies to the management of curriculum change in the Zambian basic schools. The Zambian education fraternity has faced a considerable number of unprecedented challenges that have affected the total management of the national curriculum: The Zambia Teacher Education Curriculum (Ministry of Education 2008b:25). The school managers in the country have had considerable difficulties with managing curriculum change. The basic school managers in Mongu Township are no exception in this respect. Education policies in Zambia have undergone marked reformation or restructuring aimed at realigning the new curriculum to the global educational concerns. Furthermore, Zambia is a signatory to certain external or international education policies such as the Education For All (EAF) policy and the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) (Ministry of Education 2008b:25). As discussed earlier on in chapter one (see paragraph 1.2), the changes in the education policy in Zambia from independence to date have resulted in the changes of the national curriculum on which the current foundation of the basic school

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curriculum was formulated. The conceptual analysis undertaken in this chapter will provide the required perspective needed from which the local curriculum changes may be studied and analysed.

The following paragraphs 2.2, 2.3 and 2.4 focus on the discussions of the fundamental research concepts, namely ‘management,’ ‘change’ and ‘curriculum.’ Thereby essential conceptual background is provided to place the empirical study referred to above in context.

2.2 THE MEANING OF MANAGEMENT IN MANAGING CURRICULUM