Obstacles and Barriers that could prevent the Implementation of Early

3.8.3.1 The Curriculum and Lessons

As with Kuwait, the UK’s national curriculum consists of four key phases: Key Stage 1 (age 5-7 years); Key Stage 2 (age 7-11); Key Stage 3 (age 11-14), and Key Stage 4 (age 14-17) (Harlen, 2014). However, younger children can also attend pre-school up to the age of five. The UK National Curriculum was reviewed because of the challenges it posed for learners; for example, a structured but overloaded curriculum and the lack of flexibility for schools to meet learners’ individual needs and build on their prior learning (Rose, 2009a; Wilson, 2014). Similarly, the school curriculum in Kuwait was reviewed, with changes being made in light of the reform initiatives, as the curricular materials were not research- based and did not follow basic multi-sensory language principles for English language learning (Hook & Haynes, 2009; Haynes & Mahfoudhi, 2009). The intention was to develop a curriculum which would be suitable for pupils with learning difficulties. A prolonged, unstimulating and wearying curriculum can have an adverse effect on children, as they are obliged to memorise everything they are taught. Pupils with dyslexia also have difficulty remembering spoken sounds for very long, due to their poor auditory short-term

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memory. In fact, pupils with poor auditory short-term memory very often cannot even remember a short list of instructions (Hodge, 2000). Teachers interviewed by a newspaper in the UK claimed that pupils often fail to absorb the necessary background knowledge on a topic (Garner, 2014).

The school day at primary school in the UK starts at around 9.00 am and finishes around 3.15 pm, with an extensive programme of lessons, sports and activities. However, it is claimed that almost all schools exceed the recommended minimum school day (Rose, 2009b). An arduous curriculum and long lesson duration can result in stress for pupils with dyslexia. This claim has been elaborated on by Hodge (2000), who states that pupils with dyslexia can suffer a great deal of anguish and trauma in such learning environments.

3.8.3.2 The Effects of Class Size

The size of a class is an important factor in pupils’ learning, as smaller classes permit better quality teaching (Elias, 2014). Most learners with dyslexia need individualised teaching and support (for example, one-to-one teaching or small groups), so they can learn at their own pace. Therefore, smaller class sizes are recommended (International Dyslexia Association, 2013). Elias (2014), who examined teachers in mainstream schools in New Zealand, found that teachers did not favour large classes, as they perceived these as impinging on the time that could be spent on individual children. The above study found that large class sizes can have a negative impact on academic achievement, as teachers may not be able to best support pupils with dyslexia. This will also affect learning. In short, larger classes can impact on a teacher’s capacity to assist learners with dyslexia, who continually request help and need more reassurance than other pupils in mainstream classrooms (Humphrey, 2002). Humphrey (2002), who investigated teachers in the UK, found that smaller classes allowed them to better manage children who display timid behaviour. These findings suggest that smaller class sizes surely result in more attention being given to learners so that they can make progress. Similarly, in Kuwait, large classes have hampered the effective implementation of intervention strategies (UNDP, 2012).

3.8.3.3 Teacher Workload

Teachers in primary schools, especially in mainstream environments, have the arduous task of not only dealing with diverse student groups, but also with external academic therapists and the parents of pupils with SpLD (dyslexia). Rose (2009a) refers to a review of observational studies in the US, which identified several reasons why it is difficult to teach

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pupils with SpLD (dyslexia); one of the key reasons being the teachers’ workload, which was reported as being too high.

Research carried out in the UK (DfE, 2010, 2011) has revealed that the teaching hours of primary school teachers were not proportionate to those of secondary school teachers. While teaching hours have increased for primary classroom teachers, teachers in secondary schools have experienced a drop in their teaching hours (DfE, 2010, 2011). Meanwhile, primary school teachers do not have sufficient time for planning, preparation or assessment and it is estimated that they require at least 10% of their classroom time free for carrying out such tasks (DfE, 2010, 2011). Wilson (2002) not only found that teachers preferred smaller classes so they could encourage positive behaviour and attitudes in their pupils, but because they also experience high workload. The study also found that teachers considered smaller classes to be less stressful. The negative effect of increasing class size is that teachers find it difficult to give attention to less motivated pupils.

3.8.3.4 Lack of Support in Implementing Early Intervention - Appropriate Educational Aids and Financial Support

The availability of appropriate materials is one of the criteria for dyslexia-friendly practice, according to Mackay (2005). Learning aids in the form of both written and textual materials, Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs), and specialist software are the learning tools and teaching resources required for supporting pupils with SpLD (dyslexia) and represent the key to successful implementation of early intervention. However, it is claimed by some that parents believe it is necessary for their child to be openly recognised as dyslexic, in order for the necessary resources to be made available to facilitate the child’s progress (Rose, 2009a). Financial support is therefore required for implementing early intervention, but this funding must be decentralised, so that schools can provide better support. However, in Britain, it is the Special Education Needs and Disability Division of the Department of Education and Skills which provides funding for pupils with dyslexia. In Kuwait, the International Dyslexia Association effectively engages in providing relevant information, supporting research, organising and professional development and promoting advocacy and public policy (Thomson, 2010). However, a lack of support has been identified, due to the lack of trained teachers to provide appropriate interventions for SpLD (UNDP, 2012).

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3.8.3.5 Guidance for Early Intervention in a Teachers’ Handbook

Handbooks are a resource for enhancing the guidance teachers seek for early intervention. This is because various explanations are offered for the causes of dyslexia and when developing an intervention, it is essential to understand these. This is therefore essential information to be included in teachers’ handbooks and it must be critically reviewed to ensure its appropriateness (Snowling, 2013).

In the UK, the Driver Youth Trust has made it a priority to campaign for better training for teachers in understanding dyslexia (Dyslexia Action, 2009). This is largely due to the realisation that most pupils with SpLD (dyslexia) are typically characterised as having poor decoding and dysfluent reading skills.

The most popular methods of ensuring that teachers are informed is by translating policies into a set of practice guidelines, specifically aimed at teachers. In terms of dyslexia, there is generally a lack of guidance for early intervention in teachers’ handbooks. Therefore, teachers may not be able to identify such learning difficulties (Reid et al., 2004).

3.8.3.6 Parental Involvement in Delivering Early Intervention

Parental involvement refers to the active participation of parents in a pupil’s intervention programme and will involve them making decisions about this plan. Parental involvement and support is thus considered integral to the provision of support for pupils with SpLD (dyslexia) (Rose, 2009a). Studies have in fact acknowledged that parent involvement is a vital element of effective developmental intervention (Mahoney & Wiggers, 2007). Kellar- Guenther et al. (2014) examined parent involvement in early intervention services and reported that the respondents indicated the highest levels of parental involvement in the home or in a natural setting. However, parents were reluctant to get involved when the intervention was provided elsewhere, for example in childcare settings. Even at home, parents did not appear to make their presence felt, because they were often distracted by siblings, television, or household chores. These distractions are minimal in a professional childcare setting. However, parents seemed to feel that when the intervention took place in a natural setting, it improved the quality of coaching or instruction. The findings of the above study would suggest that the provision of early intervention activities in natural settings results in greater acceptance by parents.

Eakin (2006) describes some of the challenges facing parental involvement in early childhood intervention. First, some parents may not feel confident about making

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suggestions or decisions over such an intervention for their child. Second, in a Culturally and Linguistically Diverse (CALD) family background, the parents are not always aware of the help available, or else may hold certain beliefs affecting their involvement in early childhood intervention programmes with their children. Moreover, in non-English speaking countries where the parents do not speak English as a second language, it may be difficult for them to access intervention (Eakin, 2006). This lack of access could be further aggravated by the parents’ financial situation, in that they may not be able to afford the fees for early childhood intervention, as it is not always free of charge (Eakin, 2006). Although there are obstacles, parents have to be encouraged and empowered to continue supporting their children. If the parents do not become involved, there is a strong likelihood that the children will remain passive and show little interest in their surroundings or the people around them.

3.8.3.7 Clarity in the School Administration's Policy on Early Intervention

To gain a clearer and deeper understanding of how to accommodate and support the needs of individuals with dyslexia in mainstream education, it is necessary to appreciate the subtle changes which should be made to policy and practice. If the school’s policy is to regard dyslexia as a learning deficit, based on it being a disorder, then the focus in practice will most likely be on special educational needs, remediation and teaching. School policy should rather include viewing dyslexia as a learning difference, and consequently, school practice will involve inclusion, planned intervention, differentiation and learning (British Dyslexia Association, 2005; Gaad, 2015).

School authorities are confronted by obstacles, which include concerns over the number of pupils who require support; additional training requests; the reluctance to label a pupil too early; a lack of awareness amongst staff, resulting in late identification; the lack of clarity as regards views on dyslexia; teachers failing to fully value Individual Education Programmes, the notion among teachers that they must wait for the results of student assessments, and teachers being unable to use their skills and experience in appropriate intervention, even in the absence of an assessment (Reid et al., 2004).

3.8.3.8 Increased Pressure on Teachers to Meet Specific Targets in Terms of Educational Outcomes

Teachers need to be able to understand their role in meeting the needs of pupils with SpLD. In other words, they need appropriate awareness and skills, which puts them under

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considerable pressure. They are already often overloaded, as they have many other tasks to accomplish; for example continuous assessment, the development of Individualised Education Programmes, early intervention initiatives, and curriculum planning (Reid, 2005). These tasks are time-consuming in themselves, but then they are expected to assume new roles in response to intervention. Moreover, schools and teachers need to be supported as they endeavour to incorporate the latest research into teaching practice; for example, assessing learning, measuring progress over time, and evaluating the effectiveness of reading interventions (Duff & Clarke, 2011). The pressure to include learners with dyslexia in mainstream classrooms has consequently served to increase the demands placed upon teachers, leaving them in a dilemma, as they are obliged to develop new skills and seek opportunities for training. However, through the provision of training, teachers will not only be able to play a crucial role in the identification process (Rose, 2009a), but they will also be able to devote themselves more fully to early intervention.