Open coding

Open coding is the first step in data analysis in grounded theory research as recommended by Charmaz (2014:116-120). This commenced as soon as data were collected. Open coding enabled the researcher to remain open to what participants had perceived to be important. Transcripts, field notes and narratives were carefully scrutinised to highlight key terms and identify as many codes as possible to ensure that the data had been subjected to thorough scrutiny. This was followed by the identification, highlighting and, in some cases, the rephrasing of phrases and concepts that reflected the researcher’s thoughts and interpretation in this connection and which the researcher considered to be relevant to and important for the purpose of the study. Each phrase or concept was given a number to assist the researcher in referring back

to a particular piece of data. This open coding process helped to familiarise the researcher with the content of the data. An example of the open coding process is reflected in Figure 2.4.

Ser

No Participant Transcribed text Open coding

20 FGS1-1 To add on that, on that experience I was talking about when we had those patients from CAR. This 203_{authority does affects}

our nursing care. I remember I was the sister who were allocated per rooms. Then the Captain was working in Room 5, I think. So, I was going into every room even though I am not allocated. So, I was closing her drips. She was doing medication. They were running air and I was closing them.

204_{When she came in, I can’t remember what she said, but she}

said something very disrespectful, XXXX … what, what, what …! The way she talks, she, she doesn’t have an approach, the specific Captain I am talking about. So 205_{I felt offended. I was}

also doing her a favour because I closed the drips. It is her room where she is working and they were running air. So that approach, it affected me so badly such that I didn’t want to go into that room anymore. Because imagine a CO has mentioned earlier that … 206_{Imagine when you are told or you}

are being undermined in front of your client, the trust obviously what do these people think about you, you see. So it does affect a lot, because that specific 207_{Captain wanted to be}

seen that she is in charge of the ward. Like everywhere, she was just shouting and everyone was just complaining about the same thing. So, it does affect nursing care a lot.

S1-203 _{Military authority affects}

nursing care

S1-204 _{Being spoken to in a}

disrespectful manner in front of patient for closing IVs that were running empty in a room to which she had not been allocated

S1-205 _{Feeling offended, she}

did not want to go into that room again

S1-206 _{Concerned that trust of}

patient was jeopardised; concerned about what patient must think of her

S1-207 _{Captain wants to be}

seen as being in charge of the ward by shouting at everyone

S1-208 _{Student comparing}

hospital with heaven: there are no ranks, everyone is equal

Figure 2.4: Example of open coding

2.6.4.2 Focused coding

Focused coding aims to sift, sort, synthesise and analyse large quantities of data (Charmaz 2014:138). In this study, focused coding commenced with printing and then cutting the open codes of each data set into individual pieces of paper. These were sorted by comparing codes while simultaneously noting the frequency of occurrence, similarities between codes and their potential significance (Figure 2.5).

Although tentative categories started to emerge from this process, the researcher merely used these to create some sense of order from all the data. These tentative categories with their allocated codes were then transferred back to the MS Word document. Focused coding continued in this document by coding the open codes and providing these with the most descriptive or appropriate analytic words (Figure 2.6).

Figure 2.5: Sorting during focused coding

Ser No

Participant Open coding Focused coding

20 FGS1-1 S1-203 _{Military authority affects nursing care Military authority affecting}

nursing care

S1-204 _{Being spoken to in a disrespectful manner in front of}

patient for closing IVs that were running empty in a room to which she was had not been allocated

Students being addressed disrespectfully in front of patient Students feeling offended

S1-205 _{Feeling offended; she did not want to go into that room}

again Avoiding patients

S1-206 _{Concerned that trust of patient was jeopardised;}

concerned about what patient must think of her

Patients losing trust in students

Figure 2.6: Example of focused coding

Up to this point, each data set was analysed and coded separately to do justice to both the data-source triangulation and the method triangulation. By the time the researcher had completed the focused coding of the fourth focus-group interview (FGS2), no new concepts were emerging. The researcher next integrated the focused codes of FGS1, FGS2 and the CIN, and also those of FGL1 and FGL2.

At this stage of the data-analysis process, the data fragments had to be re-organised to distinguish between the dominant and less dominant ones, to relate categories to subcategories, and to specify the dimensions and properties of each category. Strauss and Corbin (1994) refer to this step as axial coding. Charmaz (2014:148) however considers axial coding to be a cumbersome step that may limit the researcher’s vision

and delay analytical progress. Her approach, as adapted by the researcher, differs from that of Strauss and Corbin (1994) in the sense that moving from focused coding to theoretical coding should be an emerging strategy rather than a procedural application.

2.6.4.3 Theoretical sorting

As a result of Charmaz’s stance on axial coding, the researcher proceeded with theoretical sorting. Theoretical sorting entailed the comparison of categories at an abstract level. It provided the researcher with the means to create and to refine both theoretical links and the theoretical integration of the categories (Charmaz 2014:216). The process of theoretical sorting involved the identification of similarities and differences between codes, then clustering codes that fit together in more abstract patterns or categories. Categories were further refined by a process of checking the fit of each category with the coded data that it represented and also with each of the other categories and thus the entire data set. Checking the fit resulted in the grouping of concepts that shared central features or characteristics with one another and this gave rise to the emergence of categories and, in some cases, subcategories that were labelled, defined and described (Figure 2.7).

Context Focused codes Subcategory Category

Military environment Complying and accepting Regulated Restrained environment Conforming

Grievances not readily, easily voiced Being bound by accommodation rules Being bound by the military disciplinary code Being bound to military norms and values Inconsistent application of rules

Difficult to understand culture, processes

Routine interferes with private life Routinised Inspections

Restrictive Restrictive

Freedom limited

Figure 2.7: Example of theoretical sorting

At this point, the data were handed to two independent coders for validation. The findings of the independent coders were considered and where there was consensus between the two, the codes and categories about which there had been consensus were incorporated into the findings of the researcher. No significant differences in the

analysis of the data between the researcher and the two independent coders were found.

2.6.4.4 Diagramming

Diagrams in the form of maps, charts and figures provide a visual representation of the categories and their relationships (Charmaz 2014:218). In this study, diagrams increased the researcher’s ability to see the scope, direction and properties of concepts and categories.

Figure 2.8 depicts an example of the mind maps that were used during the data- analysis process and description of the findings. The example also explains the keys that were used to describe the elements and their interactions.

In Chapters 3 and 4 especially, the mind maps were used to highlight the hidden elements and their influences on professional socialisation as identified from the data. The yellow stars represent the concepts identified as hidden elements and the flags the influence of that element on professional socialisation, blue for positive and red for negative influences.

Figure 2.8: Example of a mind map and related keys

2.6.4.5 Theoretical integration

In reality, theoretical integration commences with the collection of the first data item and culminates in blending the abstract theoretical scheme into a final grounded theory

(Birks & Mills 2011:114-116, 176). Although the product of this study was a substantive model and not a theory as such, the process of integrating the emergent categories and themes into the model was followed throughout the study. During theoretical integration, the categories were reviewed and synthesised until themes started to emerge that captured the issues, processes and relationships identified in the earlier phases of analysis. These themes added precision and clarity to the data and served to make the analysis coherent and comprehensible. Figure 2.9 provides an example of one of the tentative themes that emerged during theoretical integration.

Theme 2: Nursing knowledge and skills acquisition

Focused codes Subcategories Categories

Humiliating management of poor performers Management of poor performers Adverse teaching skills, strategies and practices

Discriminatory management of poor performers Individual academic problems being overlooked

Not receiving additional academic support Lack of guidance and support Not being given clarification

Not being guided

Showing lack of interest Academic ineptitude

Showing lack of knowledge

Contradictions between theory and practice

Being inaccessible Non-availability

Being unapproachable Being unavailable

Subjective assessment Negative assessment practices Transgressing assessment policies

Figure 2.9: Example of theoretical integration

2.6.4.6 Theoretical coding

Theoretical coding is a sophisticated level of coding that follows the codes selected during focused coding. The purpose of theoretical codes is to theorise the data, to be integrative and to lend form to the focused codes by telling an analytic story that has coherence (Charmaz 2014:150). Theoretical codes are advanced abstractions that enhance the explanatory power of a substantive model. Birks and Mills (2011:126) maintain that metaphors, as figures of speech, can be used as theoretical codes where there is sufficient fit between the metaphor and the grounded theory. Metaphors may help to explain a theory or, in the case of this study, a substantive model, by clarifying relationships and providing labels for various components. Figure 2.10 contains an example of the use of a metaphor as theoretical code.

Theme Categories Subcategories Theme 1: “You’re in the army now!”

Military acculturation

Career choice Motives

Preconceived ideas Career prospects Military training Military indoctrination

Negative communication Military socialisation Military culture

Corporate identity Military environment Regulated environment

Restricted environment Figure 2.10: Example of theoretical coding

2.6.4.7 Theoretical sensitivity

Theoretical sensitivity reflects researchers’ level of insight both into themselves and the area they are researching, and is a reflection of their intellectual history and experience (Birks & Mills 2011:11). Theoretical sensitivity provides the researcher with the ability to recognise and extract elements relevant to the emerging theory from the data. Theoretical sensitivity may potentially be enhanced by, for instance, the use of literature, the use of questioning or by drawing upon personal experience. Theoretical sensitivity may increase as the research progresses (Birks & Mills 2011:59). The researcher’s professional experience, theoretical knowledge, and also some insight into the participants’ concerns provided a baseline for theoretical sensitivity, which was applied during data analysis.