1.I. Three perspectives on ICT
We identify three perspectives on ICT in the literature. We rely on these perspectives to respond to the primary research question.
At first glance, ICT can be examined as a collection of socially recognized properties. Orlikowski and Iacono define the technology artifact in the following manner (2001): “those bundles of material and cultural properties packaged in some socially recognizable from such as hardware and/or software”. In this vein, some studies focus on the common features of ICTs and their impacts on organizations. In this kind of work, authors develop an overall analysis of ICT. Not only do these authors adopt a generic view of ICTs but they also analyze the influence of technology at the organizational or societal level. For instance, Henderson and Venkatraman argue that organizations need to adapt their ICT infrastructures to their strategies to increase performance (1993). Similarly significant amount of studies explore the mechanisms by which technology supports the development of new capabilities (Pavlou et al., 2004). A generic view of ICT impact on organizations exists in crisis management literature as well. For instance, Quarantelli questions the problematic aspects of technology at a general level (1997, 2007). He explains how easy replicating and exchanging information are, therefore provoking information overloads that can burden crisis response.
A generic view of technology is valuable to discuss the relevance of ICT investments and implementation. However, including the users’ contingency into analysis enables researchers to expand their scope of inquiry to some practical dimensions of ICT (Orlikowski, 1992). ICT
78 Simon (1996) defines the artifact as a “meeting point” between an inner environment, “the substance and the organization of the artifact itself” and an outer environment. Therefore an alternate approach consists of examining ICT as a set of interaction between a system of computerized services and the user. This approach aims to assessing whether technology responds to its users’ needs. A significant amount of theories follows that approach, such as technological fit theories (Goodhue, Thompson, 1995; Mathieson, Keil, 1998; Rice, 1992) and the technological affordances (Gaver, 1991). These studies explore ICT at a more specific level of analysis than the first approach. They usually take into account a specific service ICT offers, such as risk assessing, decision-making or even communication. In addition, they focus on a specific set of organizational processes, usually the ones that rely on the ICT services. For instance, Massey and Montoya-Weiss focus on knowledge conversion in organizations and how several technological tools participate in knowledge conversion (2006). A considerably high amount of work in MIS research focuses on specific services that can be rendered by technology. For instance, Markus and her colleagues designed the Top Modeler tool to support emergent knowledge processes (Markus et al., 2002). Finally, these studies take into account the users’ perception of technology. For instance the TAM theory focuses on the technology easiness of use and its users’ perception of the technology usefulness (Davis, 1989).
Finally, the practice-based view provides additional insights on the relationship between ICT and its users. Technology is ever-present in daily life, therefore deeply influencing social systems (Orlikowski, 2007). For example, widespread daily access to Internet played a crucial role in the spontaneous development of information and support websites used during the response to Katrina (Palen et al., 2007). In addition, ICT services are shaped by organizational processes (DeSanctis, Poole, 1994; Masino, Zamarian, 2003). For instance, Katrina crisis responders’ customized their use of Google Maps on the basis of their informational needs for evacuation. By doing so, the crisis responders could benefit from the program, using information that was useful to rescue victims such as the damages and the number of victims. In other words, the uses and consequences of ICT emerge unpredictably from complex social interaction (Markus, Robey, 1988; Orlikowski, Robey, 1991). For this reason, studies that follow the practice-based view of technology focus on users and the organizational context of ICT use. To do so, these studies analyze ICT by observing groups of users’ practices in relation to a specific ICT tools. For instance, the improvisational model of technology practices emerged from the observation of the daily use of Lotus Notes technology in a customer support department (Orlikowski, 1996). Table 3 presents the three perspectives on ICT presented here in and their corresponding levels of analysis.
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Table 3. Focus on technology and users Perspective
on ICT Level of analysis Description Example(s) of theories
ICTs from a
general stance Organizations IS infrastructure ICTs
Researchers focus on ICT generic
properties and evaluate their effects on users and organizations Alignment theory (Henderson, Venkatraman, 1993) Interactive view of ICTs and users
Set of ICT tools with common
characteristics
Specific set of tasks or processes
Researchers take into consideration both ICT tools characteristics and user’s tasks.
TAM theory (Davis, 1989) IT appropriateness theory (Zigurs, Buckland, 1998) IT affordance (Gaver, 1991)
The media richness theory (Daft et al., 1987)
Practice- based view of ICT
Users of a specific ICT tool.
Researchers analyze ICT users’ practices
The improvisational model of technology practices (Orlikowski, Hofman, 1997)
The Adaptive structuration theory (DeSanctis, Poole, 1994)
1.II. ICT Support in crisis response
Directly applying the three perspectives on technology, we propose three definitions of the notion of ICT support. Even though the term “support” remains vague, referring to something that provides assistance or that enables specific processes, existing research refers to specific aspects of support. First as the possibilities offered by technology for crisis response, as the fit between technology’s features and crisis responders’ needs, and finally as the actors’ leveraging of technology for improvising. We detail each of them below and in Table 4. First of all, some authors focus on the technology’s primary function of enabling people to communicate during crisis response. These authors analyze ICT support by exploring the overall possibilities offered by technologies to crisis responder. By doing so, they explore the influence of generic features of ICT on crisis response. For instance, some researchers report how social media enable crucial communication between distant locations, either between victims or between responding organization and experts (For-mukwai, 2010).
Secondly, other authors explore the fit between ICT characteristics and crisis responder’s specific needs regarding their interactions. This approach consists of comparing the design of a specific service provided ICT with its effective use in crisis response. In other terms, this approach consists of addressing the following question: Does ICT fit the users’ needs and tasks?
80 Finally, a third approach to ICT support focuses on how users practically take advantage of technology to complete their tasks. In relation to ICT support, this approach addresses the following question: How do users leverage ICT as a resource to complete organizational processes?
Table 4. Our understanding of ICT support
Perspective on ICT Focus Definition of ICT support
Generic perspective on ICT Organizations ICT at large
Possibilities offered by ICT to organizations
Interactive view of ICT and users
A service provided by ICT The needs of a group of users
There is a good fit between the design of the services provided by ICT and the users’ needs
A practice based approach A group of users
One or several ICT tools
Users practically take
advantage of ICT to complete their tasks effectively