The first overarching null hypothesis (Ho1) therefore states the following:
There is no statistically significant difference between specific lower limb kinetic and/or kinematic measures caused by walking whilst wearing shoes adapted with specific rocker profiles or different heel heights or forepart outsole stiffness compared to a baseline control shoe.
The alternative overarching hypothesis (Hal) states that:
There is a statistically significant difference between specific lower limb kinetic and/or kinematic measures caused by walking whilst wearing shoes adapted with specific rocker profiles or different heel heights, heel curves or different forepart outsole stiffness compared to a baseline control shoe.
The second overarching null hypothesis (Ho2) states the following:
There is no statistically significant difference between lower limb EMG RMS values of targeted muscles caused by walking whilst wearing shoes adapted with specific rocker profiles or different heel heights, heel curves or different forepart outsole stiffness compared to a baseline control shoe.
The alternative hypothesis (Ha2) states that:
There is a statistically significant difference between lower limb EMG RMS values of targeted muscles caused by walking whilst wearing shoes adapted with specific rocker profiles or different heel heights, heel curves or different forepart outsole stiffness compared to a baseline control shoe.
The third overarching null hypothesis (Ho3) states the following:
There is no statistically significant difference between lower limb temporal and spatial parameter values caused by walking whilst wearing shoes adapted with specific rocker profiles or different heel heights, heel curves or different outsole stiffness compared to a baseline control shoe.
100 The alternative hypothesis (Ha3) states that:
There is a statistically significant difference between lower limb temporal and spatial parameter values caused by walking whilst wearing shoes adapted with specific rocker profiles or different heel heights, heel curves or different outsole stiffness compared to a baseline control shoe.
The fourth overarching null hypothesis (Ho4) states the following:
There is no statistically significant difference between specific lower limb muscle/tendon lengths, muscle moment arms, velocity of contractions, fibre lengths caused by walking whilst wearing shoes adapted with specific rocker profiles or different heel heights, heel curves or different outsole forepart stiffness compared to a baseline control shoe.
The alternative hypothesis (Ha4) states that:
There is a statistically significant difference between specific lower limb muscle/tendon lengths, muscle moment arms, velocity of contractions, fibre lengths caused by walking whilst wearing shoes adapted with specific rocker profiles or different heel heights, heel curves or different outsole forepart stiffness compared to a baseline control shoe
Definitive hypotheses
The first definitive null hypothesis (Ho1a) states the following:
There is no statistically significant difference between lower limb kinematic measures for maximum ankle plantarflexion during LR, caused by walking whilst wearing shoes adapted with specific rocker profiles or different heel heights, heel curves or forepart outsole stiffness compared to a baseline control shoe.
The alternative definitive hypothesis (Hala) states that:
There is a statistically significant difference between lower limb kinematic measures for maximum ankle plantarflexion during LR, caused by walking whilst wearing shoes adapted with specific rocker profiles or different heel heights, heel curves or different forepart outsole stiffness compared to a baseline control shoe.
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The second definitive null hypothesis (Ho1b) states the following:
There is no statistically significant difference between lower limb kinematic measures for maximum ankle ROM during LR, caused by walking whilst wearing shoes adapted with specific rocker profiles or different heel heights, heel curves or forepart outsole stiffness compared to a baseline control shoe.
The alternative definitive hypothesis (Halb) states that:
There is a statistically significant difference between lower limb kinematic measures for maximum ankle ROM during LR, caused by walking whilst wearing shoes adapted with specific rocker profiles or different heel heights, heel curves or different forepart outsole stiffness compared to a baseline control shoe.
The third definitive null hypothesis (Ho1c) states the following:
There is no statistically significant difference between lower limb kinematic measures for maximum ankle dorsiflexion during second rocker of gait, caused by walking whilst wearing shoes adapted with specific rocker profiles or different heel heights, heel curves or forepart outsole stiffness compared to a baseline control shoe.
The alternative third definitive hypothesis (Halc) states that:
There is a statistically significant difference between lower limb kinematic measures for maximum ankle dorsiflexion during second rocker of gait, caused by walking whilst wearing shoes adapted with specific rocker profiles or different heel heights, heel curves or different forepart outsole stiffness compared to a baseline control shoe.
The fourth definitive null hypothesis (Ho1d) states the following:
There is no statistically significant difference between lower limb kinematic measures for maximum ankle ROM during second rocker of gait, caused by walking whilst wearing shoes adapted with specific rocker profiles or different heel heights, heel curves or forepart outsole stiffness compared to a baseline control shoe.
102 The alternative definitive hypothesis (Hald) states that:
There is a statistically significant difference between lower limb kinematic measures for maximum ankle ROM during second rocker of gait, caused by walking whilst wearing shoes adapted with specific rocker profiles or different heel heights, heel curves or different forepart outsole stiffness compared to a baseline control shoe.
The fifth definitive null hypothesis (Ho1e) states the following:
There is no statistically significant difference between lower limb kinematic measures for maximum ankle plantarflexion during third rocker of gait, caused by walking whilst wearing shoes adapted with specific rocker profiles or different heel heights, heel curves, or forepart outsole stiffness compared to a baseline control shoe.
The alternative definitive hypothesis (Hale) states that:
There is a statistically significant difference between lower limb kinematic measures for maximum ankle plantarflexion during the third rocker of gait, caused by walking whilst wearing shoes adapted with specific rocker profiles or different heel heights, heel curves or different forepart outsole stiffness compared to a baseline control shoe.
The sixth definitive null hypothesis (Ho1f) states the following:
There is no statistically significant difference between lower limb kinematic measures for maximum overall ankle ROM during stance phase of gait, caused by walking whilst wearing shoes adapted with specific rocker profiles or different heel heights, heel curves or forepart outsole stiffness compared to a baseline control shoe.
The alternative definitive hypothesis (Half) states that:
There is a statistically significant difference between lower limb kinematic measures for maximum overall ankle ROM during stance phase of gait, caused by walking whilst wearing shoes adapted with specific rocker profiles or different heel heights, heel curves or different forepart outsole stiffness compared to a baseline control shoe.
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The seventh definitive null hypothesis (Ho1g) states the following:
There is no statistically significant difference between lower limb kinematic measures for maximum ankle ROM during third rocker of gait, caused by walking whilst wearing shoes adapted with specific rocker profiles or different heel heights, heel curves or forepart outsole stiffness compared to a baseline control shoe.
The alternative definitive hypothesis (Halg) states that:
There is a statistically significant difference between lower limb kinematic measures for maximum ankle ROM during third rocker of gait, caused by walking whilst wearing shoes adapted with specific rocker profiles or different heel heights, heel curves or different forepart outsole stiffness compared to a baseline control shoe.
The eighth definitive null hypothesis (Ho1h) states the following:
There is no statistically significant difference between lower limb kinematic measures for maximum knee flexion during LR, caused by walking whilst wearing shoes adapted with specific rocker profiles or different heel heights, heel curves or forepart outsole stiffness compared to a baseline control shoe.
The alternative definitive hypothesis (Halh) states that:
There is a statistically significant difference between lower limb kinematic measures for maximum knee flexion during LR, caused by walking whilst wearing shoes adapted with specific rocker profiles or different heel heights, heel curves or different forepart outsole stiffness compared to a baseline control shoe.
The ninth definitive null hypothesis (Ho1i) states the following:
There is no statistically significant difference between lower limb kinematic measures for maximum knee extension during stance, caused by walking whilst wearing shoes adapted with specific rocker profiles or different heel heights, heel curves or forepart outsole stiffness compared to a baseline control shoe.
104 The alternative definitive hypothesis (Hali) states that:
There is a statistically significant difference between lower limb kinematic measures for maximum knee extension during stance, caused by walking whilst wearing shoes adapted with specific rocker profiles or different heel heights, heel curves or different forepart outsole stiffness compared to a baseline control shoe.
The tenth definitive null hypothesis (Ho1j) states the following:
There is no statistically significant difference between lower limb kinematic measures for maximum knee flexion at TO, caused by walking whilst wearing shoes adapted with specific rocker profiles or different heel heights, heel curves or forepart outsole stiffness compared to a baseline control shoe.
The alternative definitive hypothesis (Halj) states that:
There is a statistically significant difference between lower limb kinematic measures for maximum knee flexion at TO, caused by walking whilst wearing shoes adapted with specific rocker profiles or different heel heights, heel curves or different forepart outsole stiffness compared to a baseline control shoe.
The eleventh definitive null hypothesis (Ho1k) states the following:
There is no statistically significant difference between lower limb kinematic measures for maximum knee flexion during swing, caused by walking whilst wearing shoes adapted with specific rocker profiles or different heel heights, heel curves or forepart outsole stiffness compared to a baseline control shoe.
The alternative definitive hypothesis (Halk) states that:
There is a statistically significant difference between lower limb kinematic measures for maximum knee flexion during swing, caused by walking whilst wearing shoes adapted with specific rocker profiles or different heel heights, heel curves or different forepart outsole stiffness compared to a baseline control shoe.
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The twelve definitive null hypothesis (Ho1l) states the following:
There is no statistically significant difference between lower limb kinematic measures for maximum knee ROM late stance, caused by walking whilst wearing shoes adapted with specific rocker profiles or different heel heights, heel curves or forepart outsole stiffness compared to a baseline control shoe.
The alternative definitive hypothesis (Hall) states tha:
There is a statistically significant difference between lower limb kinematic measures for maximum knee ROM late stance, caused by walking whilst wearing shoes adapted with specific rocker profiles or different heel heights, heel curves or different forepart outsole stiffness compared to a baseline control shoe.
The thirteenth definitive null hypothesis (Ho1m) states the following:
There is no statistically significant difference between lower limb kinematic measures for maximum knee ROM during stance, caused by walking whilst wearing shoes adapted with specific rocker profiles or different heel heights, heel curves or forepart outsole stiffness compared to a baseline control shoe.
The alternative definitive hypothesis (Halm) states that:
There is a statistically significant difference between lower limb kinematic measures for maximum knee ROM during stance, caused by walking whilst wearing shoes adapted with specific rocker profiles or different heel heights, heel curves or different forepart outsole stiffness compared to a baseline control shoe.
The fourteenth definitive null hypothesis (Ho1n) states the following:
There is no statistically significant difference between lower limb kinematic measures for sagittal knee angle position at ICt, caused by walking whilst wearing shoes adapted with specific rocker profiles or different heel heights, heel curves or forepart outsole stiffness compared to a baseline control shoe.
106 The alternative definitive hypothesis (Haln) states that:
There is a statistically significant difference between lower limb kinematic measures for sagittal knee angle position at ICt, caused by walking whilst wearing shoes adapted with specific rocker profiles or different heel heights, heel curves or different forepart outsole stiffness compared to a baseline control shoe.
The fifteenth definitive null hypothesis (Ho1o) states the following:
There is no statistically significant difference between lower limb kinematic measures for sagittal hip angle position at ICt, caused by walking whilst wearing shoes adapted with specific rocker profiles or different heel heights, heel curves or forepart outsole stiffness compared to a baseline control shoe.
The alternative definitive hypothesis (Halo) states that:
There is a statistically significant difference between lower limb kinematic measures for sagittal hip angle position at ICt, caused by walking whilst wearing shoes adapted with specific rocker profiles or different heel heights, heel curves or different forepart outsole stiffness compared to a baseline control shoe.
The sixteenth definitive null hypothesis (Ho1p) states the following:
There is no statistically significant difference between lower limb kinematic measures for maximum sagittal hip angle during LR, caused by walking whilst wearing shoes adapted with specific rocker profiles or different heel heights, heel curves or forepart outsole stiffness compared to a baseline control shoe.
The alternative definitive hypothesis (Halp) states that:
There is a statistically significant difference between lower limb kinematic measures for maximum hip flexion angle during LR, caused by walking whilst wearing shoes adapted with specific rocker profiles or different heel heights, heel curves or different forepart outsole stiffness compared to a baseline control shoe.
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The seventeenth definitive null hypothesis (Ho1q) states the following:
There is no statistically significant difference between lower limb kinematic measures for maximum hip extension, caused by walking whilst wearing shoes adapted with specific rocker profiles or different heel heights, heel curves or forepart outsole stiffness compared to a baseline control shoe.
The alternative definitive hypothesis (Halq) states that:
There is a statistically significant difference between lower limb kinematic measures for maximum hip extension, caused by walking whilst wearing shoes adapted with specific rocker profiles or different heel heights, heel curves or different forepart outsole stiffness compared to a baseline control shoe.
The eighteenth definitive null hypothesis (Ho1r) states the following:
There is no statistically significant difference between lower limb kinematic measures for maximum hip ROM during stance, caused by walking whilst wearing shoes adapted with specific rocker profiles or different heel heights, heel curves or forepart outsole stiffness compared to a baseline control shoe.
The alternative definitive hypothesis (Halr) states that:
There is a statistically significant difference between lower limb kinematic measures for maximum hip ROM during stance, caused by walking whilst wearing shoes adapted with specific rocker profiles or different heel heights, heel curves or different forepart outsole stiffness compared to a baseline control shoe.
The nineteenth definitive null hypothesis (Ho1s) states the following:
There is no statistically significant difference between lower limb kinematic measures for maximum hip ROM during the gait cycle, caused by walking whilst wearing shoes adapted with specific rocker profiles or different heel heights, heel curves or forepart outsole stiffness compared to a baseline control shoe.
108 The alternative definitive hypothesis (Hals) states that:
There is a statistically significant difference between lower limb kinematic measures maximum hip ROM during the gait cycle, caused by walking whilst wearing shoes adapted with specific rocker profiles or different heel heights, heel curves or different forepart outsole stiffness compared to a baseline control shoe.
The twentieth definitive null hypothesis (Ho1t) states the following:
There is no statistically significant difference between lower limb kinematic measures for maximum hip ROM during the gait cycle, caused by walking whilst wearing shoes adapted with specific rocker profiles or different heel heights, heel curves or forepart outsole stiffness compared to a baseline control shoe.
The alternative definitive hypothesis (Halt ) states that:
There is a statistically significant difference between lower limb kinematic measures maximum hip ROM during the gait cycle, caused by walking whilst wearing shoes adapted with specific rocker profiles or different heel heights, heel curves or different forepart outsole stiffness compared to a baseline control shoe.
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CHAPTER 5
5
METHODOLOGY
5.1 Chapter overview
The purpose of this thesis is to investigate the differences in gait caused by altering footwear outsole features during ambulation in healthy male volunteer subjects. The specific objective of this thesis was to especially target analysis on the alterations demonstrated to soleus (SOL), tibialis anterior (TA) and medial gastrocnemius (MGAS) muscle activity and the performance of their MTUs. This information should lead to new clinical treatments and further research; for example to recommend techniques to offload the ankle plantarflexors for patients with IC or other complications by using this innovative database to inform the design of new footwear features.
The aim of this chapter is to introduce the methods which were utilised in order to collect and investigate the primary outcome measures which were changes in the movement (kinematics), forces (kinetics) and muscle activation (EMG) and muscle properties of the lower limbs whilst walking in different specifically-chosen footwear test conditions. Ethical approval was granted by the University of Salford ethics committee to perform the walking trials and the experimental protocol (ethics application HSCR12/04).
Various footwear features were examined by changing one outsole or heel feature at a time, and were compared to a baseline shoe test condition.
Walking speed was controlled within defined limits for all subjects during the testing procedure to ensure that it was not a factor in influencing alteration to ankle kinematic data, nor muscle-tendon properties or the work done by the muscles. This would then not add additional factors which could influence the gait pattern detected; apart from when ambulating with different footwear conditions (Kirtley et al., 1985, Kirtley, 2006). Participants were trained to walk with speeds within specific limits during the initial test walks using timing gates.