Parallel translation

When a study involves more than one language, validity is a key factor, both with regards to the data collected and to the translation (Sutrisno, Nguyen, & Tangen, 2014). In qualitative studies, researchers must explain the translation process implemented, minimise issues within the translation, and include the opinions of a couple of translators, which will help to

guarantee trustworthiness (Sutrisno et al., 2014). One of the critical factors in translation is to ensure that it captures the actual meanings provided by the participants (Wong-Anuchit et al., 2016). This is generally not a straightforward procedure, given the similar accurate sentence or word might not possibly happen to be in the alternative language (Regmi, Naidoo, & Pilkington, 2010). On account of this, qualitative studies generally rely upon a couple of translators who speaks both languages (Sutrisno et al., 2014). A further method to ensure the accuracy of translation is ‘Parallel translation’ (Sutrisno et al., 2014).

Parallel translations consists of various independent translators convert form the original language to the second required language separately, then to compare both versions to compose a final agreed one (Mayer, 1978; Usunier, Lee, & Lee, 2005). After that, an additional translator evaluates and checks the translated versions to reduce issues in the translation and to guarantee agreement (Douglas & Craig, 2007; Golafshani, 2003; Sutrisno et al., 2014).

In the present study, the semi-structured interviews were carried out with parents of

individuals with ASD from KSA in Arabic (see appendix 6). The present researcher translated the interviews gathered. After that ‘Parallel translation’ technique was adopted with a PhD student colleague who conducted a translation for one of the interviews. Subsequently, a third bilingual PhD student was asked to read and compare both translated transcripts to ensure agreement, and this is to ensure that the translation from Arabic into English is accurate. All three interprets, which are the researcher and her colleagues are native speakers of Arabic and are fluent in English. Neither is a certified translator. Similar approaches to translation have been adopted by other studies (Sutrisno et al., 2014).

4.15 Pilot study:

A pilot study using semi-structured interviews (appendix 2) was carried out with three mothers of adolescents with ASD from the UK, and two mothers of adolescents with ASD from Saudi. The researcher obtained ethical approval to carry out the research in general, along with getting the participants consent to take part in the pilot research (appendix 1). The pilot aimed at exploring the experiences of mothers of individuals with ASD from childhood to their adulthood, in order to gain an understanding of the varied transitional experiences of the parents from the UK along with the KSA, and to make adjustments to the approach where appropriate. Five key themes emerged from the piloted study. The first theme was maturity, which included physical and sexual maturation. The second theme was lack of services and support. School transition and school problems were the third theme brought up by the parents, and the final two themes related to challenging problems and comorbid conditions. . These interim findings were in agreement with previous literature on autism, which shows that higher levels of anxiety and tension are present in parents of children with ASD

compared to those with typical-developing children (Giovagnoli et al., 2015; Harrop, McBee, & Boyd, 2016; Hastings et al., 2005). In addition, the lack of support and services for children with ASD alluded to by parents is also highlighted in past research (Ludlow, Skelly, &

Rohleder, 2011; Woodgate et al., 2008). Challenges with the transitions in schools were mentioned by all of the parents in the pilot study. However, one of the unexpected findings of the pilot was that the results showed that there was no major difference between the mothers interviewed from the KSA and those from the UK regarding the services and support. These themes and insights served to provide a framework for the study that followed.

Additionally, the pilot research influenced the main study of the thesis, and the interview questions. From the results of this, the researcher decided to explore the transition from childhood to adulthood from the viewpoint of individuals with ASD themselves. And to get a better insight into what have helped them or hindered them into these phases in their lives. It also shaped the interviews with participants from the KSA, in view of the lack of literature in Saudi, and lack of support and services, which might help service providers in the future for developing appropriate support and services for children with ASD and their families. 4.16 Ethical Considerations

This section presents ethical factors that were taken into consideration in the current study. Certainly research in the field of education carries ethical issues, because it includes gathering

information either from individuals or about them (Punch & Oancea, 2009). Research ethical issues of the current study are presented; also as information disclosed in this study may be personal, issues related to sensitivity are discussed as well. “This project has been reviewed following the procedures of the University Research Ethics Committee and has been given a favourable ethical opinion for conduct” and “The University has the appropriate insurances in place. Full details are available on request".

4.16.1 Consent

All participants in the current study provided informal oral consent prior to engaging in the research. This is then followed by a more formal consent process in which participants were given an information sheet as to the details and nature of the study and their rights as

participants. During this consent process, participants were informed of their basic rights to confidentiality, privacy, reciprocity and equitability (Hammersley & Traianou, 2012). Special precautionary measures were considered to ensure that each participant is treated equitably and that their privacy and autonomy is respected throughout the course of the study. Each participant undertook the same procedures and was granted the same rights as the rest. The individuals with autism, who took part in the study, were adults or young adults with High Functioning Autism or Asperger’s syndrome, which had the legal age and mental capacity to consent for themselves.

Before conducting the interview, an information sheet was provided to the interviewee

explaining the objectives of the study. Additionally, interviewees were notified that they have the right to withdraw from the research study at any given time with no cost or penalty to them, As Cohen, Manion, and Morrison (2013) mentioned that the investigator has to respect the participant’s right of self-determination. All interviewees then signed an informed consent form prior to engaging in this study. The definition of informed consent as stated by Diener and Crandall (1978) is informing individuals about the process of study that they will take part in, and providing them with significant information and facts about the study that would possibly influence their choices in whether to take part in the current study or not.

It should be noted that because of the nature of the topic in this study, some parents might find some elements in the interview upsetting. As parents of children with autism will to be asked to recall some memories and experiences of their child with autism, these participants may experience some level of psychological discomfort in response to this study (Pellicano & Stears, 2011). In the event that happens, the interviewer will give the option to the participant

if they wish to take a break, or to end the interview. The researcher will respect the parent’s requests and follow them in all cases. The interviewer will also provide a debrief form that includes a list of recommended readings, support groups, and the contact information of the National Autistic Society that might be helpful to the participant.

4.16.2 Confidentiality

Thorough efforts were made to protect participants' identity throughout the course of this study. Confidentiality is an essential right of all human subjects, and the researcher insured that all information was stored securely and that no personal identifications were used for any participant in this study (Wertz et al., 2011). No names were used in the collection or analysis of data; each of the UK participants was assigned a pseudonym, and each of the KSA

participants was assigned a number. The researcher protected the participants' confidentiality and privacy. For example, parents were informed that they have the right to decline comment for any questions asked during the qualitative interview process. However, given the nature of this qualitative, study participants were interviewed face to face or by phone. Consequently, the participants could not expect anonymity from the interviewer but confidentiality, which means that while the researcher recognizes the participant who provided the information, the association would not be made to the public by the researcher (Cohen et al., 2013).

During this study, every participant was given a number to guarantee confidentiality and anonymity throughout the data analysis process and for the data representation. The data collected from the interview such as the transcripts and the data analysis were retained confidential and saved in password-protected computer and a locked cabinet.

In the event if child protection was raised, the researcher followed the ethical procedures of the University of Reading and the British Educational Research Association (British

Educational Research Association, 2004) and contact the appropriate authorities, which was in case if this happened.

4.16.3 Sensitivity

The current study asked that participants disclose personally sensitive information to the researcher. Therefore, stringent efforts were made to maintain a high degree of ethical responsibility and that the potential for harm was minimised. This study was given approval by the ethics board, and aimed to address each of the British Educational Research

to reduce such risk. Sensitivity was maintained and the potential for harm was minimised by allowing participants to take breaks from the interview when necessary or stop a particular line of questioning.

According to Gholami and Tirri (2012), empathy and compassion are critical ethical considerations that must be made in qualitative interview studies. Therefore, efforts were made to prevent social and personal biases that may confound data collection, and the primary researcher attempted to display a high level of empathy for participants' case scenarios.

Furthermore, ethical sensitivity was also maintained during the data analysis process. No attempts were made to manipulate responses or to pressure the participants to answer questions they were not comfortable with. Cohen et al. (2013) stated that “ most institutions of higher education have their own ethics committees, and these usually have their own codes of ethics against which they evaluate research proposals” (p. 99). The researcher complied with the university’s ethics policy and code of practice for research with human participants in the current study.

4.17 Summary

In conclusion, the main aim of this study was to explore and determine how do individuals with autism and parents experience transition from childhood to adulthood. This chapter summarizes the ontology and epistemology of this current research, and it gave an overview of the methods of data collection, sample, the research design and procedure, ethical