Parenting measures

All parenting measures were mother self-report and so are called maternal mental health and maternal parenting from this point on in the thesis. All were completed by self-complete survey. Maternal mental health as measured at each of Waves 1, 2, 3 and 4 was used in the current study. Maternal parenting measures were selected from Wave 3 only. Table 3.4 provides a summary of these measures and the following text provides more details on the measures and justification for their selection. The LSAC variable labels for these items can be found in Appendix D.

75 Table 3.4 Summary of parenting measures for the current study

Variable Wave and location of item

Measures Response scale Example item

Maternal mental health Wave1: Leave behind questionnaire Wave 2, 3 and 4: complete during interview Kessler K6 (6 items)

1 = all of the time to 5 = none of the

time

In the past 4 weeks how often have you “felt hopeless?” Maternal parenting Parenting efficacy Wave 3: complete during interview 4 items 1 = never or almost never to 5 = almost always

“I feel that I am very good at keeping this child amused” Warmth 6 items 1 = never or

almost never to 5 = almost always

“How often do you have warm, close times together with this child?”

Hostility 4 items 1 = not at all to 10 = all of the

time.

“How often have you raised your voice with or shouted at child?”

Anger 5 items 1 = never or

almost never to 5 = almost always

“How often are you angry when you punish this child?” Inductive

reasoning

5 items 1 = never or

almost never to 5 = almost always

“How often do you explain this child why he/she was being corrected?” Consistency 5 items 1 = not at all to

10 = all of the

time.

“How often does this child get away with things that you feel should have been punished?”

Maternal mental health

The links between maternal mental health and parenting behaviours (Waylen & Stewart-Brown, 2010) and maternal mental health and child outcomes (Goodman et al., 2011), are widely established. Emerging research has also begun to explicate the ways in which maternal mental health and children’s self-regulation interact within the parent-child environment across early childhood (Choe, 2012; Roben, 2012). Still, there is much more to learn in regards to the bidirectional influences that are likely to exist during this period. Maternal mental health was therefore selected as a key variable for investigation in the current study.

Maternal mental health was measured consistently at each data collection point in the LSAC study using the Kessler K6 screening scale. This measure is designed to detect psychological symptoms and has been widely used in Australian and

international population studies (Furukawa, Kessler, Slade, & Andrews, 2003). The K6 consists of six items that ask about the respondents’ feelings over the past four-week

76 period. Items are answered on a five-point scale ranging from 1 = all of the time to 5 = none of the time. Example items are: over the past four weeks how often “Did you feel nervous?” and “Did you feel everything was an effort?” An overall score was

calculated by summing and averaging the total score. Higher scores indicate the

presence of more symptoms. In the current study the K6 screener was used as a measure of maternal mental health at each of Waves 1, 2, 3 and 4.

Maternal parenting

Aspects of maternal parenting were selected for analysis from the Wave 3 data only and included warmth, hostility, anger, inductive reasoning, consistency and parenting self-efficacy. Selection was based on prior evidence that similar parenting constructs are significantly associated with children’s developing self-regulation and behavioural problems across early childhood (Blandon, Calkins & Keane, 2010;

Graziano et al., 2010; Olson et al., 2011). A composite measure of each of the parenting constructs was calculated using the proportionally adjusted factor score regression weights reported in Zubrick, Lucas, Westrupp and Nicholson (2013). These

investigators used structural equation modelling (SEM) to assess items and scales used in the parenting measures included in LSAC. Well-fitting measurement models were then constructed and syntax was provided for the calculation of construct scores that take into account item loadings. Further detail on each of the constructs is provided below.

Warmth was assessed using six items from the Child Rearing Questionnaire (Paterson & Sanson, 1999) on which parents rated their expression of physical affection and enjoyment of the child. Each item was rated on a 5-point scale (never or almost never, rarely, sometimes, often, always or almost always). Example items include “How often do you express affection by hugging, kissing and holding this child?” and “How often do you have warm, close times together with this child?”

Hostility was measured using adapted items from the Early Childhood

Longitudinal Study of Children, Birth Cohort (National Center for Statistics, 2004) and the National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth 1998-1999 (Statistics Canada, 1999). The scale consists of five items which are answered on a 10-point semantic differential scale ranging from 1 = not at all to 10 = all of the time. Example items are:

77 in the past four weeks “I have lost my temper with this child” and “I have raised my voice with or shouted at this child”.

Anger was measured using adapted items from the National Longitudinal Study of Children & Youth (Statistics Canada, 1999). Each item was rated on a 5-point scale (never or almost never, rarely, sometimes, often, always or almost always). Example items are: “How often are you angry when you punish this child?” and “How often do you feel you are having problems managing this child in general?”

Inductive reasoning was measured using five items from the Child Rearing Questionnaire (Paterson & Sanson, 1999) on the extent to which mothers used

reasoning when managing their children’s behaviour. Each item was rated on a 5-point scale (never or almost never, rarely, sometimes, often, always or almost always). Example items include “How often do you explain to this child why he/she was being corrected?” and “How often do you emphasise to this child the reasons for rules?”

Consistency was measured using adapted items from the National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth 1998-1999 (Statistics Canada, 1999). The scale consists of five items which are answered on a 10-point semantic differential scale ranging from 1 = not at all to 10 = all of the time. Example items are: “How often does this child get away with things that you feel should have been punished?” and “How often is this child able to get out of punishment when he/she really sets his/her mind to it?”

Parenting self-efficacy was measured using four items from the Early

Childhood Longitudinal Study-Birth Cohort (National Center for Education Statistics, 2004). The items consisted of various statements regarding parental self-efficacy such as “Do you feel that you are good at getting this child to do what you want him/her to do?” Respondents rated the four parenting statements on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 = never/almost never to 5 = always/almost always.