Darling and Steinberg (1993) define parenting style as the emotional climate in which children are raised; the parenting style is related to how parents supervise, monitor, and discipline their children. Baumrind (1991) characterises parenting styles by the dimensions of parental responsiveness and demandingness, although recent measures constructed to assess parenting style have focused broadly on the
emotional relationship between parent and child, parenting, parenting practices and behaviours, and parent’s belief systems (Darling & Steinberg, 1993).
Various theoretical perspectives have emphasized different components of parenting style. The psychodynamic model is concerned with the emotional
relationship between the parent and the child and how this relationship plays a role in the psychosexual, psychosocial, and personality development of the child.
Differences in the emotional relationship is seen as resulting from the differences in parental attitudes and attributes, with the argument being that parenting behaviour is made meaningful by attitudes (Darling & Steinberg, 1993).
The behaviourist and social learning theorists categorise parenting style in terms of parental behaviours, but focus more on parental practices as opposed to parental attitudes. Differences in a child’s development are seen as indicative of differences in the learning environment of the child (Darling & Steinberg, 1993).
Some agreement was reached between the different theoretical schools of
thought through the formulation of Baumrind’s (1966, as cited in Darling & Steinberg, 1993) typology, which incorporated both the emotional and behavioural processes. Baumrind (1966, as cited in Darling & Steinberg, 1993) categorises parenting
practices into four different parenting styles based on interviews and observations of family interactions. These parenting styles are: Authoritative, Authoritarian,
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Permissive, and Neglectful. She identifies the first three as having had an immense impact on the child-rearing practices of parents (with the fourth indicating an
absence of child-rearing practices). Baumrind’s theory has made educators and child-development experts more knowledgeable of child-rearing practices. 3.6.1. Authoritative Parenting Style
The authoritative parenting style refers to interaction with children in a rational manner. Verbal discussion is encouraged and the reasoning behind rules is explained. When children are in disagreement with their parent, their protests are explored. The extensive verbal discussion fosters parental responsiveness, as well as independence, self-reliance, and social responsibility in children. However, limits and control over children’s behaviour and actions are put in place. Authoritative parents are therefore equally responsive and demanding, while setting out standards for future conduct (Baumrind, 1966, as cited in Darling & Steinberg, 1993).
Authoritative parents are supportive which allows children to develop self-confidence and responsibility with less problematic behaviours.
3.6.2. The Authoritarian Parenting Style
The authoritarian parenting style refers to parents who are demanding, and unresponsive to the demands set by their children (Alizadeh, Talib, Abdullah & Mansor, 2011). The parent tries to manage and shape the behaviour and actions of children in a controlling manner. This parenting style is more rigid and children are reared according to specific standards of conduct. Obedience is of the utmost importance to this parent and vigorous measures are used if children behave in a manner that opposes the set standard of conduct. Parental power is important which is why punishment, force and harshness are often used as techniques by this parent. This type of interaction with children discourages verbal discussion, causing children
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to become less autonomous (Baumrind, 1966, as cited in Darling & Steinberg, 1993). Corporal punishment may also be used, which has also been found to be linked to suicide, and depression later in life (Alizadeh et al., 2011).
3.6.3. The Permissive Parenting Style
The permissive parenting style involves a nonpunitive, accepting, and positively reinforcing attitude towards children’s behaviours, actions, and impulses. Children are consulted and given explanations about rules. The permissive parent is
responsive, but not demanding and little demand is made on children regarding their responsibility and behaviour (Baumrind, 1966, as cited in Darling & Steinberg, 1993). This parent views themself as a resource for their children (Alizadeh et al., 2011). Children are left to regulate their own behaviour; the parent does not demonstrate control over the child. Control is used more covertly, such as in reason and
manipulation, than overtly. Permissive parents dislike overt control and authority over their children (Darling & Steinberg, 1993).
3.6.4. The Neglectful Parenting Style
A neglectful parenting style is demonstrated by parents who are uninvolved in their children’s lives. The parent is neither responsive nor demanding. No monitoring or guidance of children takes place and little support and warmth is displayed
towards children. Neglect also refers to deprivation of food, clothing, shelter and medical care (Hines, Kantor, Holt, 2006). Since the child receives little emotional support and warmth from the parent, they become emotionally neglected. This emotional neglect may manifest itself in low self-esteem, depression, daydreaming and underachievement. As the child becomes an adolescent, this neglect may bring about antisocial behaviour and alcohol or drug abuse (Blumberg, 1981).
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3.6.5. Parenting Styles associated with Antisocial Behaviour
Research shows that authoritarian, permissive, and neglectful parenting styles are associated with childhood behavioural problems (Alizadeh et al., 2011; Schaffer, Clark, & Jeglic, 2009). Authoritarian parenting for example, is too restrictive thereby hindering completion of the developmental task of autonomy. Permissive parenting is the opposite and allows too much freedom, thereby possibly preventing the child from learning social consequences. Neglectful parenting may damage the
attachment bond between mother and child causing later emotional problems. Evans, Nelson, Porter, Nelson and Hart (2012) found that lower levels of maternal efficacy beliefs about dealing with child aggression to be related to
authoritarian parenting. It may be that because children who demonstrate ASB are defiant towards their parents, that parents efficacy beliefs are lower. Schaffer et al., (2009) found that permissive, as opposed to authoritarian parenting, contributed to ASB. They indicate that lax parenting methods influence antisocial behaviour, because it hinders children from developing empathic abilities, ultimately affecting children’s behavioural inclination. However, Scott, Doolan, Beckett, Harry and Catwright (2010) found that parenting associated with ASB is less positive, more permissive and uses more violent discipline.
Parenting styles characterised by harsh and inconsistent parenting have
generally been associated with child behaviour problems. It has also been found that depressed parents will either be very lenient regarding the monitoring and
disciplining of their children, or very authoritarian (Golombok, 2000). Factors that indirectly contribute to this parenting style are domestic violence, maternal
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