The need for early screening and evaluation of pre-school children to identify developmental lags, deficits, and/or other sensory and perceptual deficiencies that may interfere with children’s ability to function in the school environment has been recognised for many decades (Platzer, 1976). It has been postulated that the general self-concept of children, who do poorly in gross-motor skills and rate low in self-concept, may be improved by successful experience in perceptual-motor activities, which in turn may positively influence performance on other types of tasks (Platzer, 1976).
Hougton et al. (2004) contended that the fundamental limitation effecting children with ADHD is one of behavioural inhibition. They concluded that
difficulties with the inhibition of behaviour contributes to difficulties with other functions, such as the operation of working memory, controlling moods, motivation and arousal and the ability to break down and recombine sequences of behaviour into new responses. Their research compared the performance of boys with ADHD to those without ADHD on computerized laboratory- based games. The boys with ADHD took less time to complete the task when the game involved no working memory load and no distractions. However, they were also less accurate in their performance. These findings supported the observation that children with ADHD tend to carry out tasks impulsively in the quickest possible time but in doing so, often commit more errors. The researchers also implemented a computer-based training programme comprised of continuous performance tasks. They found that this programme facilitated the development of persistence among the boys with ADHD. They concluded that computer games should be explored as a means to help children to increase their ability to control their concentration and task persistence.
Michel et al. (2005) examined the effects of positive reinforcement on children struggling with signs of ADHD. They found that children in the ADHD group showed the greatest benefit from immediate reinforcement, suggesting reward accounted for a substantial amount of variation in inhibition. Highly
motivating consequences (compared to a task with less motivating consequences) significantly improved response inhibition in children with ADHD, but not in
Summary
Although the idea that attention should be regarded as a skill is not fully developed from a theoretical perspective it has become increasingly popular in the motor learning and performance literature as earlier stated by Janelle et al. (2004). The researcher feel strongly about this point and feels that it is possible that
improvement in motor skill performance may be associated with an improvement in an individuals ability to control his/her attentional process if enough attention and focus is placed on the process over time.
The researcher feels that at times we tend to take for granted the fact that focussing one’s attention is a natural process. Yes the ability and to focus and the capacity thereof does improve naturally over time with the growth process but the researcher feels that the ability to focus attention effectively is something that should be taught from a early age.
Therefore the researcher feels strongly about the statement made by Moran (1996) and Janelle et al. (2004) that if attention is regarded as a skill then to
propose that improvement in the control of attention should be possible with approaches in certain tasks in certain environments.
Taking ADHD into account when the individual has a problem with focus and capacity in focussing attention for periods of times, it is even more important according to the researcher to teach these children how to focus attention
effectively (as you would a skill). The natural process of attentional development should therefore not be taken for granted but be taught to these learners in a specific way with specific guidelines and outcomes. The researcher thinks that in doing this through or in conjunction with movement programmes may be very effective and beneficial to these individuals. Movement programmes seem like the more effective or beneficial choice to the researcher because of the more relaxed notion of physical activity and “play-like” environment these programmes seem to offer making the individuals feel more at ease and comfortable, therefore more open to possibilities.
One of the major concerns for the researcher about the effectiveness of any programme when considering attention as a skill may be the influence of
diagnostic criteria and the co-existence of co- morbid factors with the existence of the ADHD spectrum.
The researcher feels that all programmes may not be effective for all children when taking into consideration the diagnostic criteria of each child as there is the possibility that not all diagnosis are objective at all times. It has happened in the case of Kennedy (2002) that a misdiagnoses was made and choice of treatment seemed ineffective in the end. At this stage no textbook
diagnoses and treatment is set out there for all individuals showing signs of ADHD.
From there the question arises which of the existing signs and symptoms would you treat first and how. Which of the two conditions factors prevalence is the strongest will ultimately influence the choice of treatment programme you choose. Another concern that arises is that some characteristics or soft signs may seem stronger than other at times because each individual is unique and also influenced by environmental and social constructs within their unique environment. Hence, making the choice of suitable and most effective programme even more difficult. It is therefore important to remember that not all programmes are appropriate and effective for all individuals and the unique characteristics of all individuals and cases should be taken into consideration at all times.
The purpose of Chapter Two was first to describe how attention is defined as a skill in current motor learning literature. ADHD was then discussed as a disruption in attentional control that is associated with behavioural disruptions such as hyperactivity, inattention and impulsivity. ADHD was also defined as an
interaction among biological, psychological and environmental systems, resulting in a variety of different approaches to addressing the disorder. However, by regarding attention as a skill, cognitive strategies for helping children learn to control their attention can be explored as options for educational programmes. The final section of the chapter reviews some of the educational strategies that have been implemented and some of the research that has specifically used movement programmes as the means for helping children develop attentional control. The following Chapter Three will present the methodology as well as the movement education programme implemented in this research.