Participative research

2.3.3.1 Introduction

I employed a participatory approach as opposed to undertaking a piece of participatory action research. The terms are often conflated, with the latter enabling participants to become equal partners in all aspects of the research and focusing on social change and action (Aldridge 2015; Israel et al 2008). Within this study ‘participation’ was less inclusive as participants did not undertake certain aspects of the research such as, recruitment of participants, data collection and data analysis. However participants were recruited to contribute to the planning of the research, to consider methodological issues, and to scrutinise the initial findings, as well as making the typical substantial contributions to the findings of this research study. This section focuses on two main aspects of the participatory approach employed within this thesis that of shaping the methodology that subsequently informed Phase 2 of the research, and the examination of the findings from Phase 2. More detail of undertaking the participatory aspect within Phase 1 and subsequent findings are discussed in sections 5.3 and chapter 6 respectively.

As a feminist researcher I am committed to pursing non-hierarchical research relationships and this was one of the main influences in introducing a participative element into this research study. One characteristic of qualitative research is the centrality of the relationship between researcher/researched, which has an inherent power imbalance in favour of the researcher, and can only be reduced as opposed to eradicated (Allen 2011; Law 2006). It is therefore important to use methods that attempt to reduce the power inequalities within the research relationship, by establishing collaborative and non-exploitative relationships (Hesse-Biber 2014a; Burns and Chantler 2011; Letherby 2003). Incorporating a participatory approach has the potential to shift and share power between

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researcher and participant even if it is limited to happening on a micro level (Maguire 1996). Support for participatory research within gerontology has increased due to the significant repositioning of research vis-à-vis older people, where research was undertaken ‘for’, as opposed to ‘on’ older people (Warren and Maltby 2000, Warren 1999). This direction of research continued to develop towards establishing research ‘with’ or ‘by’ older people, but needs to be extended both in breadth and depth (Barnes and Taylor 2009). This study aims to reflect this progressive development.

2.3.3.2 Broadening participation: who and how?

In relation to researching ageing and sexuality, older people have struggled to be included on two interrelated levels. Firstly, funders and researchers have directed the research agenda in this area, which has resulted in the dominance of quantitative methods and proliferation of research focusing on sexual behaviour and technique, a point noted in Section 1.3 and discussed further in Section 4.2. Secondly, and as a consequence, up until recently older people’s attitudes, views and experiences in relation to issues of sexuality have been absent, or at best marginalised, within this body of knowledge (Gott 2005). Subsequently, I decided that widening older women’s involvement in this study was my attempt as the researcher to redress this balance, by increasing their visibility, both on a ‘process’ and ‘data’ level. I perceived the older women as knowledgeable experts on the experiences of ageing and that they influenced the research study in a number of ways. Firstly, their contribution produced research that was relevant and important to older women specifically, and older people generally. I concur with Maguire (1996, p108) who stated that “participatory research attempts to provide one way for those whose voices have been silenced or marginalised to name the problems and questions they deem worthy of investigating”. Secondly, older women’s participation in planning the research study both challenged stereotypical perceptions of ageing and highlighted older women’s interest in sexuality. Thirdly, their participation created an empowering image of older women as advisors as well as active subjects of research studies.

Within Phase 1 of the research focusing on methodological issues of undertaking research into ageing and sexuality, my intention initially was to include older women only, but on reflection, the inclusion of qualitative researchers who worked in the field of ageing and sexuality was considered to be an invaluable source of information. This inclusion was particularly important due to the small, but increasing, amount of literature focusing on how to research sexuality in later life (see Section 4.3). Although not mutually exclusive, the two ‘groups of interest’, that

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is, research users and research providers, had the potential to present a holistic view of the research process. It was important for me to ensure that the contributions from both groups were regarded equally and that the researchers were not seen as ‘better experts’ due to the power that came with their location as researchers within academia. As noted in Section 4.3.3, researchers within the field of sexuality have experienced, and continue to do so, stigma and marginalisation (Irvine 2014; Haywood and Mac An Ghaill 2006; Israel 2002; Okami 2002; James and Platzer 1999), and possibly this is exacerbated if combined with the study of ageing. The strategies that I put in place to ensure that the contribution from each of the participants was considered equally are discussed in Section 2.3.3.3.

Models of participatory research have been put forward (see also Pretty et al 1995; Biggs 1989; Arnstein 1969) which focus on the issue of differing levels of participation. Participatory research can usefully be perceived on a continuum, which reflects the scope of participants’ control, collaboration and influence in relation to the research processes (Aldridge 2015). Although the level and type of participatory research depends upon the context and purpose of the research itself (Peace 2002), it is important that the participants are clear about the boundaries of their participation so that they do not hold unrealistic aims and expectations (Barreteau et al 2010). The level of participation that could be realistically achieved for this research study was ‘consultation’ (Hanley et al 2004), which involved asking the older women and the researchers about their views on researching ageing and sexuality in one-off semi-structured interviews. Consultation is at the other end of the continuum of involvement to user control and it could be argued that the effect in terms of empowerment for the participants concerned was limited. Peace (1999) identified a range of roles for the involvement of research participants in the research process including, “originators of research questions, advisors on methodology, fieldworkers, analysts and disseminators” (Peace 1999, p2). The consultation role that the older women and the researcher participants undertook involved an exploration of their views on the research aims/questions and on any methodological issues, in effect becoming “originators of research questions [and] advisors on methodology” (Peace 1999, p2). This consultation role was extended to form a critical reference group, which had a membership of two older women with whom I discussed my initial thematic findings from Phase 2 (see section 2.3.3.4).

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2.3.3.3 Broadening participation: influencing the methodology

Although there were some limitations regarding the diversity of the sample of participants in Phase 1 of the research (see Appendix 3),14 _{in particular the lack of}

ethnic diversity, the strength of the sample was in the range of experiences vis-à- vis researching sexuality. For example, two older women participants had prior experience of being participants in researching issues of ageing and sexuality. A further two had experience of participating in other types of research and one of these participants also had experience of being a researcher focusing on long-term marriages. For the remaining two older women, their involvement in this research would be their first experience as participants. However I did not feel that they were any less able to contribute to the main aims of this phase of the research, as they would have experience of their own sexuality within the context of ageing. All the researcher participants had experience of undertaking qualitative research into ageing and sexuality. The context and purpose of their research experiences varied immensely from research conducted for PhD studies through to government-funded research studies. The other aspect of heterogeneity in relation to the researchers was the range of countries that they worked in, including Britain, America, Canada and New Zealand.

Returning to the issue of possible power imbalance between the two groups of participants, I employed strategies that would enable all to feel that they could contribute in an effective way. For example, I sent each participant a copy of the interview questions before their interview based on the interview schedule (see Appendix 4). I felt that this was particularly enabling for the older women who may have needed more time to think about methodological questions. As can be seen from the schedule, there were two sets of questions, one for each of the groups of participants. The question areas were the same, but the way that the questions were phrased reflected the position of the participant, taking into account whether the participant came from a researched or researcher position in relation to researching sexuality. Another example involved the decision to present the findings as a whole from all participants as opposed to a comparative study of the views of researchers and older women. I felt that both participant groups usefully offered different perspectives in the form of providers and users of research and

14_{The numbering of appendices within this thesis reflects the chronology of the research process.}

For example: Phase 1 (ethics documentation/recruitment, participants, data collection, data analysis, and findings); Phase 2 (ethics documentation, recruitment, participants, data collection, data analysis, and findings); literature used throughout the thesis; and any other information pertaining to the thesis as a whole. See Appendices pp257-325. The numbering system does not follow the order that they appear within the thesis.

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that these perspectives were pieces of the same picture giving an additional richness to the data. I identified in my findings any obviously unequal contribution from one group of participants to a particular theme. See Section 5.3 for an overview of Phase 1 and a summary of the recommendations informing the way the research in Phase 2 should be carried out and what the research questions should focus on. Chapter 6 gives a full presentation of the findings from Phase 1 of the research study.

2.3.3.4 Broadening participation: influencing the findings

I had planned to go back to the older women participants in Phase 2 of the research with themes that I had identified from the data set, as this would have, not only increased older women’s involvement in another process of the research, but also would have enhanced its credibility through participant validation (Silverman 2014). I have referred to this in Section 5.7.2.1. Owing to the amount of time it took to recruit, interview and analyse sixteen interviews a length of time had elapsed that would have deemed it too time consuming in terms of resources available and possibly inappropriate. I had however collected names of women aged between 50–65 years of age who had wanted to be part of the research but were too young to meet the inclusion criteria. They showed a keen interest in reading and commenting on the findings and wanted me to contact them when I was ready for their input. In the end two women, one academic in gerontology and one health worker, formed a small critical reference group, and I asked them to assess the findings, which comprised of 10 themes, in two ways. Firstly, whether the findings as a whole were accessible, credible, interesting and useful. Secondly, identifying the connections between the themes so that the latter could be placed in groups and each group could be subsumed under a main theme. This consultation helped the analysis through to the development of the final five main themes (see Appendix 17), which produced cohesion, whilst also recognising the diverse elements of sexuality. This is discussed further in Section 5.6.3.

I would argue that, despite some limitations that have been identified in this section, the participative element within the methodological processes in this research study, has contributed to its strength and rigour. A range of different older women have been involved throughout this study from the planning stage, through to contributing to the data to influencing the final analysis.