Of what materials is the earth composed, and in what manner are these materials arranged? Th ese are the fi rst inquiries with which Geology is occupied, a science which derives its name from the Greek ge, the earth, and logos, a discourse. Previ-
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 ously to experience we might have imagined that investigations of this kind would relate exclusively to the mineral kingdom, and to the various rocks, soils, and metals, which occur upon the surface of the earth, or at various depths beneath it. But, in pursuing such researches, we soon fi nd ourselves led on to consider the successive changes which have taken place in the former state of the earth’s surface and interior, and the causes which have given rise to these changes; and, what is still more singular and unexpected, we soon become engaged in researches into the history of the animate creation, or of the various tribes of animals and plants which have, at diff erent periods of the past, inhabited the globe.
All are aware that the solid parts of the earth consist of distinct substances, such as clay, chalk, sand, limestone, coal, slate, granite, and the like; but previously to observation it is commonly imagined that all these had remained from the fi rst in the state in which we now see them—that they were created in their present form, and in their present position. Th e geologist soon comes to a diff erent conclusion, discovering proofs that the external parts of the earth were not all produced in the beginning of things in the state in which we now behold them, nor in an instant of time. On the contrary, he can show that they have acquired their actual confi gura- tion and condition gradually, under a great variety of circumstances, and at succes- sive periods, during each of which distinct races of living beings have fl ourished on the land and in the waters, the remains of these creatures still lying buried in the crust of the earth.
By the “earth’s crust,” is meant that small portion of the exterior of our planet which is accessible to human observation. It comprises not merely all of which the structure is laid open in mountain precipices, or in cliff s overhanging a river or the sea, or whatever the miner may reveal in artifi cial excavations; but the whole of that outer covering of the planet on which we are enabled to reason by observa- tions made at or near the surface. Th ese reasonings may extend to a depth of several miles, perhaps ten miles; and even then it may be said, that such a thickness is no more than 1/400 part of the distance from the surface to the centre. Th e remark is just: but although the dimensions of such a crust are, in truth, insignifi cant when compared to the entire globe, yet they are vast, and of magnifi cent extent in relation to man, and to the organic beings which people our globe. Referring to this standard of magnitude, the geologist may admire the ample limits of his domain, and admit, at the same time, that not only the exterior of the planet, but the entire earth, is but an atom in the midst of the countless worlds surveyed by the astronomer.
241. Th e primary mode of composition of the fi rst paragraph is: (A) narration
(B) description (C) defi nition (D) classifi cation (E) process analysis
242. Th e major claim of the fi rst paragraph is that:
(A) although geology was fi rst thought to be a study of minerals, further study shows that animals, plants, and evolution are part of the subject as well
(B) although geology was fi rst thought to be a study of minerals, further study shows that rocks, soils, and metals are part of the subject as well (C) although geology was fi rst thought to be a study of the earth’s surface,
further study shows that the depths beneath the surface are part of the subject as well
(D) although geology was fi rst thought to be a study of the changes that have taken place in the earth, further study shows that the history of animals and plants are part of the subject as well
(E) although geology was fi rst thought to be a study of the history of creation, further study shows that animals and plants are part of the subject as well
243. Th e fi rst sentence of paragraph two, “All are aware that the solid parts of the earth consist of distinct substances, such as clay, chalk, sand, limestone, coal, slate, granite, and the like; but previously to observation it is
commonly imagined that all these had remained from the fi rst in the state in which we now see them—that they were created in their present form, and in their present position,” uses:
I. enumeration II. metaphor III. parallelism (A) I (B) II (C) III (D) I and III (E) I, II, and III
244. Th e last sentence of paragraph two, “On the contrary, he can show that they have acquired their actual confi guration and condition gradually, under a great variety of circumstances, and at successive periods, during each of which distinct races of living beings have fl ourished on the land and in the waters, the remains of these creatures still lying buried in the crust of the earth,” is an example of a(n):
(A) sentence fragment (B) interrogative sentence (C) imperative sentence (D) simple sentence (E) cumulative sentence
245. In context, the word “artifi cial” in line 28 most nearly means: (A) produced by humans rather than nature
(B) made in imitation of something (C) feigned
(D) not genuine (E) aff ected
246. In context, the word “just” in line 33 most nearly means: (A) impartial
(B) morally upright (C) equitable; fair (D) accurate (E) deserved
247. Th e primary mode of composition of the last paragraph is: (A) narration
(B) description (C) defi nition (D) classifi cation (E) process analysis
248. According to the last sentence, the geologist views the earth with: (A) frustration and bewilderment
(B) awe and humility (C) fervor and hostility (D) mirth and irreverence (E) elation and skepticism
249. Th e last paragraph primarily appeals to: I. ethos II. logos III. pathos (A) I (B) II (C) III (D) I and III (E) I, II, and III
250. Th e primary purpose of the passage is to: (A) inform (B) persuade (C) entertain (D) refute (E) defend
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