PEACE AND DEVELOPMENT

It has been argued by McCandless (2011:14), who is a scholar of conflict and development, that peace and development are inextricably intertwined. This scholar continues by stating that the only way to attain peace and stability in the community development is by removing conflict. Therefore, for long lasting and reliable peace to be attained, it is important to implement economic systems that can generate sustained economic growth and guarantee the meeting of certain minimum basic needs for the mass of the population. These systems would not totally remove all conflict, but they will eliminate some of its causes. The question of peace should be conceptualized and perceived, not only in the negative sense, but also in the positive sense of creating conditions that are conducive to peace, i.e. security, economic welfare, political efficacy and psychological well-being, etc. Warner (2000:9) revealed that a certain number of donor agencies, including the Swedish International Co-operation Agency (SIDA), Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA), United Kingdom Department for International Development (DFID) and the World Bank, have come up with strategic thinking that community projects must contribute to resolving conflict and peace building in their jurisdiction.

In other words, development practitioners cannot implement development without peace or stability in the targeted areas. For instance, in Rwanda, efforts were made to stop the violence but these failed due to the “individual and collective impact of official and unofficial mediation efforts, peacekeeping mission and humanitarian aid” (Jones, 2002). Therefore, it has proven to “development and humanitarian actors” that “normal professionalism” can fail if conflict dynamics are not addressed.

23 2.13 BUILDING THE PEACE

When addressing conflict or peace building, it is important to identify the root causes of conflict and address them so that conflicts do not re-emerge at a later stage. The International Development Committee (2006) emphasizes that building peace must be seen as a process which needs to involve both leaders of rebel groups and the representatives of all those caught up in a voluntarily or involuntarily conflict. It also requires coordination with the UN and its agencies, such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank, regional and sub-regional organizations, the private sector and NGOs. Donors need to support local initiatives and align them with the objectives and processes of developing countries. Experience shows that peace building needs to be internally driven rather than imposed by outsiders. In other words, successful outcomes are likely to occur where peace building has the support of those affected by conflict. The next chapter provides the research methodology that was used in this study and explains the techniques used for collecting and analyzing data.

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CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY AND RESEARCH METHODS

3.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter discusses the methodology, research design and sampling procedure, how the data was collected, and how it was analysed, interpreted and presented. In this case, data was collected from the respondents in the fields where they were working. The research methodology facilitates the achievement of the following objectives:

 To identify and learn about the conflict cycles of the Tyefu area.

 To identify the key role players in those conflict cycles.

 To evaluate whether or not the conflict undermines the capacity to address sustainable development goal two and sixteen.

 To get some recommendations on resolving the problems caused by conflict in the Tyefu area.

 To assess whether the Tyefu rural communities are addressing the SDG sixteen which talks about conflicts.

3.2 DESCRIPTION OF THE AREA

Tyefu area is located in South Africa, +/-25km from Peddie town, in the western part of Peddie along the river banks of the lower Great Fish River (Nxuba). The Tyefu area is in Ngqushwa municipality, which falls under the Amathole district in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. The municipality consists of 118 villages, and the Tyefu area falls in Wards 8 and 9 of the municipal demarcation. Ngqushwa municipality is bordered by the Great Fish River to the west and the Keiskamma River to the east. The people of this municipality depend on social grants for about 72.5% of their living (Gutura & Tanga, 2014:4). There are more than ten villages that fall within the Tyefu area, and three of them were used for the study; these are Pikoli, Ndlambe, and Ndwayana.

The total size of the population is about 4 897 (Ngqushwa Municipality IDP, 2015- 2016:16). Pikoli and Ndlambe falls under Mhala Tribal authority whilst Ndwayana belongs to Msutu tribal authority.

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[Online]. Available at. http://www.municipalities.co.za (accessed Jan 2017)

Figure 2.3: Map of Amathole citing Ngqushwa Local Municipality (local government handbook (no date))

3.3 RESEARCH APPROACH

This study took a more qualitative approach because it explored the richness, depth and complexity of the phenomena. Qualitative research, broadly defined, means "any kind of research that produces findings not arrived at by means of statistical procedures or other means of quantification" (Strauss

& Corbin, 1990). The aim of this method (qualitative) is mostly informed by the critical science of the qualitative approach termed interpretivism, and makes assumptions that the qualitative approach is a way to gain insights by discovering meanings through improving our comprehension of the whole (Strauss & Corbin, 1990).

The researcher specifically adhered to this method because the underlying assumption of interpretivism is that the whole needs to be examined in order to understand phenomena.

Interpretivism is critical of positivism, which understands research from a quantitative perspective, involving counting and measuring of events and performing statistical analysis of a body of numerical data (Smith, 1988). Interpretivism proposes that there are multiple realities, not single realities of phenomena, and that these realities can differ across time and place (Denzin, 2000).

26 3.4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

In this study, data was collected using questionnaires that were distributed and explained to the respondents. They were expected to complete them in a meeting situation. At Ndlambe, data was collected in the field, where they were working because of disagreements over the venue for the meeting. Whilst at Pikoli and Ndwayana, community halls were used as the venue for the meetings.

3.5 RESEARCH DESIGN

In this study the data was collected from the Tyefu communities of Ndwayana, Ndlambe and Pikoli.

A time line or work plan that was constructed in the proposal was used for guidance as to when to do what in order to meet deadlines. The researcher aimed to explore the research problem by ensuring that evidence that was attained was tangential in answering the research question as unambiguously and accurately as possible. Yin (1989) stated that research design deals with a logical problem and not a logistical problem.

3.6 SAMPLING PROCEDURES

Sampling is a selection of a particular unit, whether from organisations or from people, that will be used in the study from the targeted community. Sampling can be categorised as probability and non-probability sampling. According to Babbie (2004), purposive sampling is a type of non-non-probability sampling whereby units to be observed are selected based on the judgment of the researcher about which ones will be the most useful representatives. This type of sampling has a weakness as well, such as the lack of wide generalizability (Berg, 1998). Nevertheless, purposive sampling enabled the researcher to interview people who fit the criteria of desirable participants (Henning et al., 2004).

The procedure that was used in this research is purposive sampling because the researcher has selected a group of people from Pikoli and Ndlambe, whilst in Ndwayana the community was requested to nominate 20 people on their own. The reason for this in Ndwayana is that there are problems within the community; as a result, they are always cautious about things that revolve around them. Before the study was conducted the researcher had an informal talk with one of the community leaders who gave the advice to let the people select the study group on their own. A sample of twenty people in each community was used. This type of sampling was used accordingly and it assisted in answering the research question.

27 3.7 DATA COLLECTION

Burns and Grove (2001) define data collection as “the precise systematic gathering of information relevant to specific research objectives or questions”. The purpose of collecting data was being able to test, determine and to answer the research question. In this case, information collected was gathered through the use of the qualitative approach. The information can be collected using various methods and instruments such as interviews, questionnaires, surveys, log sheets, document review, focus groups, and case studies (Gerber, 2016). But in this case, it was collected using questionnaires and interviews. The questions asked were relevant to the research question. Three samples of people from three different villages were used for data collection.

3.8 DATA COLLECTION TOOLS

For this research, data was collected using questionnaires and interviews. Pictures and videos were also taken of the participants during the contact sessions in order to validate information. Participants were given questionnaires so that they could provide answers to the questions.

3.8.1 Interviews

Interviews are vibrant conversations that take place between the interviewee and the interviewer whereby meanings are “cooperatively built up”, conveyed, interpreted and recorded as received by both the respondent and the enumerator (Gubrium and Holstein, 1999). An interview is therefore a two-way conversation in which the interviewer asks the participant questions in order to collect data and to learn about the ideas, beliefs, views, opinions and behaviours of the participant (Ndwayana, 2012). Allison et al. (1996) agree with other scholars that an interview is a good way to gain insight into the meanings, interpretations, values and experiences of the interviewee and his or her world.

The intention of qualitative interviews is to perceive the world through the eyes of the participants.

Again, this data-gathering method can be a treasured source of information, provided it is used appropriately (Maree, 2007). In this study, interviews were done only in cases where the respondent could not write. Interviews were executed face-to-face with respondents. An interview guide was designed, comprising both structured and semi-structured questions. The researcher was aware of the need to play an unbiased interpretational role during the interviews.

3.8.2 Questionnaire

The term ‘questionnaire’ implies a collection of questions, but a standard questionnaire may contain some statements as questions, especially if the researcher is interested in determining the extent to

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which respondents hold a particular perspective (Babbie and Mouton, 2001). For this study, the questionnaire was based on existing literature significant to the research questions, and in relation to applicable works in this field of study. Questionnaires were used to collect information from the community members from Ndwayana, Ndlambe and Pikoli. The questionnaire was divided into three sections. Section A of the questionnaire extracted biographical information from the interviewees.

Section B focuses on specific issues related to the development of their communities. The last section, which is C, deals with the 2030 Sustainability Development Goals two and sixteen, strategies in place to achieve them and the restrictions to their attainment.

A sample of 60 respondents was used to collect information for this research (20 from each village).

In Ndwayana, data was collected from a group of people who were employed in a failed tomato growing project. This group of people were selected by the community members to represent them in the study. The researcher presented the idea of data collection to the village and requested a group of 20 people. In Ndlambe, data was collected from people involved in food plots and an irrigation scheme. At Pikoli, the data was collected from various commodity groups. Respondents were requested to fill in the questionnaire in a meeting situation. The questionnaire was designed so as address the research problem. Interviews were used with respondents who couldn’t write and were conducted in Xhosa and English. The interviews in Xhosa were transcribed and later translated into English for data analysis by the researcher. Interviews were conducted individually to make sure that participants were able to express themselves freely without feeling threatened by other respondents.

3.9 DATA ANALYSIS OR INTERPRETATION

Data collected was interpreted using the coding method. During coding qualitative data was categorized and described the details and implications of the results. Coding is normally used where the data is collected using questionnaires. Another method to be used for analysis was a visual and participatory element interpretation, where video clips and photographs are compared and analyzed (Gerber, 2016). The quantitative data was interpreted using statistical tests such as descriptive and factor analysis.

3.10 DATA PRESENTATION

In this study, graphs are used to draw a clear picture of the employment status and sources of income as well as the frequency tables and charts that are used to explain age, gender and level of education.

Some of the results are presented in the form of explanation.

29 3.11 VALIDATION OF DATA

Polit et al. (2001) defines validity as “the degree to which an instrument measures what it is supposed to measure”. The information gathered was plotted onto a table, for example in demographic factors, the number of respondents was presented using a frequency table that shows total number of respondents, minimum, maximum, average and these numbers were converted into percentages. This means that the researcher was able to convert the information gathered during the survey into data and was able to present it using charts and graphs.

3.12 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS

Researchers have to be ethical towards colleagues, the study population and the larger society. This is due to the fact that social research does delve into the social lives of other human beings (Berg, 1988), hence researchers must ensure that the rights, privacy and welfare of the people that form the focus of the study are preserved. Such care is what is termed ‘ethics’. Babbie & Mouton (2001) state that to do social scientific research, one needs to be aware of the general agreements about what is proper and improper in the conduct of scientific enquiry. The researcher sought permission to conduct the research study from the Tyefu tribal authority and participants before conducting the research.

During data collection, respondents were asked to give their names and ages but these identifiers were removed from the interview guide and were replaced with identification numbers to ensure confidentiality (Babbie & Mounton, 2001). According to Berg (1988), informed consent refers to participation by individuals in any choice of exercise that is free from any element of fraud, duress or similar unfair inducement or manipulation. Lastly, there was no physical contact during data collection, hence there was no physical harm to the respondents either. The next chapter will discuss the findings of the study.

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CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS AND DATA PRESENTATION

4.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents the data collected and the research findings. A thorough analysis was conducted on the following selected factors: conflict issues and conflict factors, identity factors, conflict resolution and management factors, improvement of management factors and outside intervention factors. The three villages used in the study fall under the Tyefu area that received assistance from various stakeholders. Due to conflict in some villages, all the efforts made to develop the area were not successful because of the existing and recurring conflicts that hinder development.

4.2 ORGANIZING DATA

The data collected was organized using samples groups from three villages. Therefore, three samples were used, each with 20 respondents. Data from sample one was collected from Pikoli, sample two from Ndwayana whilst sample three was from Ndlambe: See summary below:

Table 4.1: Data Collected

 This is a non-progressive area/no development is

4.3 ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA

Qualitative data collected was presented using frequency tables, charts, graphs and explanation of written interpretation of the findings.

31 4.3.1 Demographic factors

4.3.1.1 Age

In this study, the respondents from all samples were between the ages of 20 to > 60 years. The highest number of respondents were between 51-60 years with a percentage of 26.66% followed by the ages

> 60 at 23.33% whilst people between the ages of 20-30 (youth) were about 13%.

Table 4.2: Respondents according to age groups

4.3.1.2 Gender

The study reveals that males were dominating in terms of numbers in all the three samples used for the survey as compared to females, the reason being that males are the most interested in farming.

This margin is not so big, though. This can be seen with the difference in percentages of the 60 respondents, males with a percentage of 52% and females were at 48%. Participants chosen by the communities consisted of more males than females.

Years Frequency Percentage Valid % Cumulative %

20-30 8 13.33% 13.33% 13.30%

31-40 10 16.67% 16.67% 29.97%

41-50 12 20.00% 20.00% 49.97%

51-60 16 26.66% 26.66% 76.63%

>60 14 23.33% 23.33% 99.96%

Total 60

Min 8

Max 16

Average 12 STD

32 Figure 4.1: Gender illustration chart

4.3.1.3 Level of education

The study shows that out of sixty respondents from different villages, the highest qualification, at 50%, is standard ten of which 16.67% attended Adult Basic Education and Training (ABET) and only 15% never attended.

Table 4.3: Respondents according to the level of education

Level Frequency Percentage Valid % Cumulative %

Sub A 11 18.33% 18.33% 18.33%

STD 10 30 50.0% 50.0% 68.33%

ABET 10 16.67% 16.67% 85.00%

Never Attended 9 15.00% 15.00% 100.00%

Total 60

Minimum 8

Maximum 30

Average 15

Key

Sub A : Respondents who attended the beginners’ elementary class at school Std 10 : Respondents who matriculated

ABET : Respondents who received basic education and at a late age in their lives Never Attended : Respondents who never attended school

Male 52%

Female 48%

Male Female

33 4.3.1.4 Employment status

In terms of percentages; 10% of people were employed, 30% were unemployed, whilst 60% were self-employed. It was so important to have information regarding their employment status so as to establish if some of them were getting additional income. Where there is employment, there is happiness, food security and less conflict. All the respondents from Pikoli and Ndwayana villages were the members of the projects who sell their vegetable produce to local buyers. That means they are self-employed, whilst respondents from Ndwayana were not involved in any of the development programs, indicating that they were not employed. Only one respondent revealed that he was employed as a ward committee member.

Figure 4.2: Graph illustrating employment status

4.3.1.5 Sources of income

Most of the respondents from Pikoli and Ndlambe earned income from farm and non-farm activities, social grants and old age pensions, whilst at Ndwayana sources of income were from grants and old age pensions. These numbers were then transfigured into percentages. The analysis revealed that most of the respondents receive income from agricultural sales (40%), followed by pension allowances at 25%, whilst remittances and grants constituted less than 25%.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Employed Unemployed Self employed

Employment status

Series 1 Series 2 Series 3

34 Figure 4.3: Graph illustrating sources of income

4.3.2 Rural development

About 15% of respondents from Ndwayana were aware of rural development, that it is about improving the standard of living by creating jobs and about 85% were not. The examples of rural development they made were of the community projects. Those who were aware of rural development mentioned the projects that have failed due to community conflict. According to the Ndwayana people, these projects were supposed to bring light to the community through poverty eradication and by creating jobs. For example, the tomato project that employed most of the community members ended up failing because of problems of poor communication and social dynamics within the community leadership and the Cape Concentrate Private Partner. Another project that was not progressing was the project of food plots that belongs to the irrigation scheme. Ndlambe and Pikoli

About 15% of respondents from Ndwayana were aware of rural development, that it is about improving the standard of living by creating jobs and about 85% were not. The examples of rural development they made were of the community projects. Those who were aware of rural development mentioned the projects that have failed due to community conflict. According to the Ndwayana people, these projects were supposed to bring light to the community through poverty eradication and by creating jobs. For example, the tomato project that employed most of the community members ended up failing because of problems of poor communication and social dynamics within the community leadership and the Cape Concentrate Private Partner. Another project that was not progressing was the project of food plots that belongs to the irrigation scheme. Ndlambe and Pikoli