Perceptions

The concept of perception is the 'acquirement of immediate knowledge' through stimulation of our senses (Armstrong, 1961). One of the definitions in the Oxford dictionary (1964) also defines perception as: 'intuitive recognition (of truth, aesthetic quality etc).... action by which the mind refers to its sensations to external object as cause'. Perceptions are the foundations upon which we develop our reasoning and beliefs. For example, ELL teachers strategies to teaching will influence pupils' perceptions of FL/L2 learning (Yoshida, 2008). Research has shown that the development of language learning processes, abilities and use of effective learning strategies are influenced by learner' beliefs (Wesely, 2012; Oxford, 2003). Therefore, the importance of early language learners'

these studies. Positive perceptions will influence the development of positive beliefs which in turn will influence motivation and help pupils' overcome any problems arising during learning - negative perceptions will have negative effects on beliefs and motivation for learning (Puchta, 1999; Schommer, 1990). The Oxford dictionary (1969) defines belief as: 'acceptance of thing as true'. However, this does not mean that proof has been provided. The distinction between beliefs and perceptions is not often made in the literature yet there is a subtle difference. Wesely (2012) in her review reports that perception studies often investigate either:

• how pupils perceive, understand and make sense of themselves in the learning situation

• how pupils perceive the learning situation for example, the classroom environment. Importantly, Wesely (2012) describes how these two areas are often believed to be

interrelated by researchers (p. 100). Studies of learner beliefs although similar differ from learner perceptions.

• what pupils think about themselves

• what pupils think about the learning situation, for example the teacher. Pupils' opinions of themselves as language learners involve their own capabilities for learning i.e. to accomplish learning tasks (Mills, Pajares and Herron, 2007). Furthermore, research into learners' beliefs are extended to include their opinions of the target language culture and community, and the task of learning a FL/L2 (Wesely, 2012).

The disposition to respond in a positive or negative manner toward for example a person or FL is defined in social psychology as attitude (Schwarz and Bohner 2001). The definition of attitude in the Oxford dictionary (1969) is: 'settled behaviour as showing opinion (way of thinking)'. Studies concerned with attitudes have shown relationships between

motivation, attitude and language learning success (Ellis 2008). The environment also plays a role in learners' attitudes, beliefs and perceptions of FL/L2 learning. Rifkin (2000)

identified in his study that learners' beliefs, attitudes and perceptions of FL learning cannot be separated from the learning environment (teacher, methods, strategies, tools) as these are as diverse as languages and levels of learning. Subsequently, it can be hypothesised that learners' beliefs, attitudes and perceptions of FL learning can change. Therefore, investigation into FL learning needs to take into account all of these factors.

The following collection of studies described in this section report the findings from research into teacher and pupil perceptions and beliefs of their FL/L2 classrooms.

The findings from Buchholz’s large-scale study of Austrian primary schools (2007) have shown that teachers’ and pupils’ perceptions of their English lessons were often in

divergence from one another, for example as regards pupil output opportunities to practise English, or enjoyment and integration of English into specific subjects – music was perceived to be used very often by the teachers (61.4%) for English integration in contrast to the pupils’ perceptions (35.8%). Although Buchholz (2007) attributes some of this discrepancy to the data collection methods (p. 150), the importance of pupils’ and teachers’ perceptions of classroom practice has been highlighted in the three-year ProCLIL project financed by the European Union (Massler, 2012).

The investigation into the perspectives of pupils and teachers of primary CLIL classrooms in the ProCLIL project (Massler, 2012) and the influence these have on the implementation of educational programmes was undertaken in four countries: Cyprus, Germany, Spain and Turkey. Pupils’, teachers’ and parents’ perceptions of CLIL were investigated at the start and completion of the project. Massler (2012) reporting on the German findings describes the difficulties which arose at the beginning of the project with teachers who had no previous training in CLIL. The German findings showed that difficulties perceived by teachers with regard to CLIL implementation involved lack of L2 competence, lesson preparation time, lack of subject knowledge and working alone. Positive influential factors

professional and personal development, such as development of FL skills. Nonetheless the teachers also perceived CLIL to be a burden for many reasons, for example the quantity of lesson preparation time required. Pupils’ and teachers’ perceptions of FL improvement were mainly positive at the end of the study. Many of the parents and teachers at the start of the project feared that pupils’ content learning would diminish when taught through the L2. However, at the end of the project parents showed positive attitudes towards a CLIL approach for learning. Pupils’ perceptions of CLIL for content understanding were positive both at the beginning and at the end of the project. All of the teachers in the project chose the modular approach to CLIL due to their lack of CLIL knowledge. The overall findings also showed that attitudes play an important role in the successful implementation of CLIL and need to be considered by educationalists at all levels.

Another study investigating teachers’ and students’ perceptions was undertaken by Dalton- Puffer, Hüttner, Jexenflicker, Schindelegger and Smit (2008). They investigated students’ and teachers’ beliefs and views on CLIL at Austrian colleges of technology and crafts (Höhere Technische Bundeslehranstalt). The focus of participants’ perceptions was on the three main areas: language learning, aims of CLIL and dynamic features in the classroom which lead to CLIL success. The findings from language learning showed that both the non-specialist English teachers and students perceived that their English improved by using or doing it (Dalton-Puffer et al., 2008). However, specialist English teachers perceived that their own English could only be improved by interaction with native speakers. Therefore, Dalton-Puffer et al., (2008) conclude that perceptions between

specialist English teachers and CLIL non-specialist English teachers differ in their concept of the aims of CLIL. Native competence is the aim of specialist teachers and language competence for communication is the aim of the non-specialist English teachers. The findings also revealed that participants explicitly taught vocabulary which contradicts the CLIL concept of incidental learning. Perceptions of the learning aims also differed

between policy-makers and the teachers and students. Both teachers and students perceived the CLIL lessons as lessons where extra English practice could be provided but not for learning English. Learning, they perceived is undertaken in their English lessons (Dalton- Puffer et al., 2008). How far primary teachers and pupils perceive that English integration into the curriculum furthers content learning is also partially investigated in this study. Findings from investigating dynamic classroom features and CLIL success showed that both students and teachers perceived CLIL as successful with regard to English language competence and the importance of English as an international lingua franca for later working life. All of the findings show that CLIL is perceived as a method for additional English learning and practice for communication in real life, rather than as the synergy of content and language learning. The study revealed that teachers’ and pupils’ perceptions of CLIL are important sources for assessing the type of CLIL implementation taking place. Mercer and Ryan (2010) have also shown how learning is organised and how the meaning made from experience is influenced by learners’ perceptions.

The final study in this section displays vividly how young pupils model their developing perceptions of FL learning on their teacher’s classroom practices. A study by Gardner and Yaacob (2007) investigating the literacy practices of six and seven-year-olds in English lessons showed that pupils are distinctly aware of the position that both the teacher and the pupils take in the classroom. Furthermore, pupil behaviour (data collection entailed pupils role playing in the classroom) often reflected the observed lessons. These are important findings which can assist teachers to reflect upon their own classroom practice and simultaneously provide insight into their pupils’ perceptions of FL learning.

The studies described in this section show the diverse attitudes, perceptions and beliefs present in classrooms which often diverge between learners, teachers and policymakers. The influence these have on learning/teaching motivation, implementation of educational

programmes and outcomes for both teachers' and their pupils is important (Massler 2012; Mercer and Ryan 2010; Dalton-Puffer et al., 2008; Buchholz 2007; Puchta, 1999).

More research into learners’ and teachers’ perceptions can assist in the implementation of education programmes. Although research of teachers’ and pupils’ perceptions of their CLIL classrooms is growing, it is mainly focused on the outcomes of learning. More research on teachers’ and pupils’ perceptions of FL/L2 classrooms would be beneficial to all FL/L2 educators.

The next section discusses teacher training and teacher perceptions.