leader and a desire to identify with his vision and goals moderate their personalism and individualism for the good of the organization enabling organizations to function effectively. In the caliphal model, subordinates less enamored of their leader’s qualities are motivated by fear and coercion to perform their duties. In this study, the author uses data from five different surveys given to groups in Amman, Jordan, to provide empirical evidence that the four dimensions exist. He then looks at the implications of the model, especially at the negative aspects of the four dimensions, and suggests the need to “reduce the negative aspects of personalism and individualism, reduce dependence on a great man, and strengthen teamwork and institutionalism.” This article is of benefit to those interested in understanding the
importance of culture in determining how leaders and followers relate to one another. It is particularly interesting to those who wish to understand how the Arab leader-follower culture may influence organizational, social, and political processes in Arab societies.
66) Pasa, S. F. (2000) “Leadership Influence in a High-Power Distance and
Collectivist Culture.” Leadership and Organization Development Journal 8 no. 21: 414–426.
In various Western studies, researchers have identified consultation, rational persuasion, inspirational appeals, and ingratiation as four of the most common strategies leaders use to influence subordinates. In this inquiry, Pasa, a professor of management at Bogazici University in Istanbul, conducted two studies to examine the ways Turkish organizational leaders influence subordinates, theorizing that the above strategies, while applicable in a Western context, do not necessarily apply in a Turkish context, where cultural dimensions of high-power distance and collectivism are more prevalent. In his first study (using 24 recent MBA graduates as
participants), he concludes that the strategies are not commonly used in Turkey—that Turkish leaders more commonly use position-based power (40%) and promises to share responsibility (20%) when trying to get subordinates to perform. In his second study (which had 336
participants from 12 companies), he reinforces these findings and recognizes secondary methods by which leaders influence subordinates, including pressure-control, rationalizing and involving, social exchange, and legitimizing. His findings demonstrate that leaders from collectivistic, hierarchically arranged cultures use different influencing strategies to accomplish the goals of their organization.
67) Pasa, S. F., Kabasakal, H., Bodur, M. (2001) “Society, Organizations, and Leadership in Turkey.” Applied Psychology: An International Review 50 no 4: 559–589.
In this study, the authors, from the Department of Management at Bogazici University in
Istanbul, study which leadership behaviors are most commonly accepted and practiced in Turkish organizations. Through surveys, focus groups, and interviews with employees of four Turkish companies, they try to grasp the dominant values in Turkish organizations, ascertain which leadership behaviors are observed within Turkish organizational culture, and understand what Turks perceive to be universal behaviors of effective leaders. Following a thorough literature review that explains dimensions of culture and theories of leadership, they provide a highly informative report on Turkish organizational values, the relationship between these values and perceived leader behavior, and ideal leader behaviors prevalent in Turkey. This is a valuable study in a country where not many such studies have been conducted.
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68) Rasheed, S. (2005) Strengthening the Collective Voice: Palestinian Woman NGO Leaders. Unpublished master’s thesis, School for International Training,
Brattleboro, VT.
The author, a female Palestinian development manager formerly of the Ma’an Development Center in Palestine (and currently at the Carter Center in the U.S.), examined the thoughts and perceptions of seven Palestinian women NGO leaders on the following issues:
• the extent to which they perceive themselves to be shaping Palestinian civil society • the factors contributing to women’s rights in Palestine
• the factors promoting or hindering women’s participation in civil society • the defining characteristics of a leader
• who should be leading Palestinian civil society
Of significant interest are the themes that emerged relating to what comprises a successful leader. Each of the women interviewed spoke of the importance of a vision, a thirst for knowledge and experience, knowledge of the political and social environment, and family support. This thesis is an interesting exploration of the infrequently heard attitudes, values, and thoughts of women who lead organizations in a society where hindrances to such leadership are many (including poor access to education, patriarchal and conservative cultural constraints, constraining societal views of a woman’s accepted role, and lack of family support for women in the workplace).
69) Rouach, D. (2002) “The Role of the Army in Developing High Potential Israeli Executives.” In Derr, C. B., Roussillon, S., and Bernois, F. (eds.), Cross Cultural Approaches to Leadership Development, 196-201. Westport, CT, USA: Quorum Books.
This essay, by a French professor of management at the University of Lyon, explores the role that the army plays in the development of the elites who run the businesses and government of Israel, and how the army shapes the pioneering spirit of future leaders in Israel. Army culture, the author asserts, is so pervasive throughout Israeli society that it is inescapable. It serves as a melting pot for waves of immigrants coming to the country (“the nation’s quintessential social and cultural integration system”), is the biggest school in the country, and inculcates a set of common national, Jewish, and civic values including “love of country, loyalty and dedication, solidarity with the world’s Jews, and identification with the Jewish people’s past and the Zionist ideal.” Moreover, this experience facilitates workplace egalitarianism; informal, effective communication between coworkers; quick decision making; and extensive professional networking. Scholars and students of leadership will find this short article interesting in its description of how one organization within a society can so pervasively facilitate values and behaviors that enhance leadership, innovation, and public-spiritedness in a society. Regardless of whether one approves or disapproves of its mission, there can be little doubt that the Israeli army’s role in establishing a common set of leadership expectations for followers and leadership models for managers has strongly helped define the Israeli workplace, and may be responsible for many of the economic, social, and political successes of Israeli society as well.
70) Shahin, A., and Wright, L. (2004) “Leadership in the Context of Culture: An Egyptian Perspective.” Leadership and Organization Development Journal 25 no. 6: 499–511.
The authors, from Helwan University School of Management in Giza, Egypt, and Bradford University School of Management, in Bradford, U.K., respectively, studied the suitability of Bass and Avolio’s transformational/transactional leadership model—which is North American in origin— in Egypt, a Middle Eastern country. Using questionnaires on leadership effectiveness given to managers and subordinates in ten Egyptian banks, including public sector banks, joint ventures,