Personal Values

Values are regarded as beliefs about life and acceptable behaviour. They are learned (Williams 1979), closely held, and act as standards to guide behaviour (Rokeach 1979). They provide an insight into the goals that motivate individuals as well as the most effective means of attaining these goals (Engel, Blackwell and Miniard 1995). “Values represent (1) concepts or beliefs, (2) about desirable end states or behaviours, (3) that transcend specific situations, (4) guide selection or evaluation of behaviour and events, and (5) are ordered by relative importance” (Madrigal and Kahle 1994, p. 22).

An individual’s value system is the way in which separate values are arranged in an hierarchical form, which enables an individual to resolve conflicts and make decisions (Kamakura and Mazzon 1991). In looking at differences between individuals, it has been asserted that it is not simply the values per se that should be considered, but rather the way in which the particular values are arranged into a value system (Engel, Blackwell and Miniard 1995). Single values are grouped into higher order value domains based upon their similarities and differences (Madrigal and Kahle 1994), and it has been suggested by some, that these value domains are better predictors of behaviour than is achieved using single values (Schwartz and Bilsky 1987; Kamakura and Novak 1992; Kamakura and Mazzon 1991). Rokeach (1968) argued that virtually all life situations involved more than a single value and

invariably there is conflict between a number of values. The value system is needed to resolve these conflicts. A value system is more abstract than a single value and segments identified using value systems are better able to describe key underlying consumer motives. It is important to recognise, however, that other environmental influences, such as price and promotion, must be taken into account in segmenting the market (Kamakura and Novak 1992).

Personal values has been used as a basis for segmentation or for predicting consumer behaviour in a wide range of studies including: cigarette smoking (Grube, Weir, Getzlaf and Rokeach 1984), religion (Feather 1975), travel decisions (Pitts and Woodside 1986; Muller 1989; Dalen 1989; Shih 1986; Thrane 1997), choice between work and leisure pursuits (Jackson 1973), travel style (Madrigal 1995), cross-cultural differences (Schwartz and Bilsky 1987), discontinuance of leisure activities (Backman and Crompton 1990) and choice of leisure activities (Beatty, Kahle, Homer and Misra 1985; Boote 1981; Jackson 1973; Madrigal and Kahle 1994). Although some researchers have suggested that values strongly influence behaviour (see, for example, Homer and Kahle 1988), most are more cautious in their views. Homer and Kahle (1988), in proposing values as a meaningful predictor of behaviour, suggested that an inability to correctly measure values was a factor in explaining that there had not been stronger correlations between values and behaviour in studies conducted to that time. The purpose of this study is to explore further the extent of any such relationship in a special event context.

According to Madrigal (1995), much of the work that had been carried out on values concerned their performance in relation to market segmentation, which had been impressive since “they are less numerous, more centrally-held, and more closely related to motivations than more traditional demographic and psychographic measures” (p. 126). Blamey and Braithwaite (1997) suggested that values were a useful basis for segmentation because they were less problematic to measure than needs and motives, and they had greater predictive power with respect to behaviour. They are also useful as indicators of consumer motives and for enriching the descriptions of market segments formed using more traditional approaches (Munson 1984; Pitts and Woodside 1986).

An understanding of personal values provides more information regarding consumer behaviour than does demographic information (Kahle and Kennedy 1988; Keng and Yang 1993). An understanding of values is important as “value priorities shape lifestyles and drive consumer behaviour” (Muller and Woodcock 1997, p. 33). Thus, if a marketer is able to identify segments that share common value preferences, products can be designed and promotional strategies developed that are consistent with those value preferences (Muller 1989). A number of useful examples of how promotional campaigns can be developed around segments based on individuals with similar values is provided in Muller (1989).

Unlike attitudes, values are supposedly not tied to any specific object or situation and, therefore, are able to guide behaviour in a general sense. The assertion that there are a few major value dimensions which are relatively stable over time and provide the basis for literally thousands of specific beliefs and attitudes, makes them important tools in predicting consumer behaviour. Being relatively stable over time does not mean, however, that values do not change. Muller and Woodcock (1997) reported on studies that had been conducted in the US which demonstrated that value priorities of ‘baby boomers’ had changed over a 10 year period. It was suggested that economic and general resource factors contributed to this change in value priorities.

It is the centrality of values to people’s cognitive structures that enables them to be “effective predictors of human behaviour in a variety of situational contexts” (Madrigal 1995, p. 126). However, it is an understanding of the value system rather than a single value that is necessary to gain an appreciation of an individual's behaviour (Kamakura and Novak 1992). It has been suggested that consumers who rate particular values more highly, have different lifestyles which in turn can affect the way in which they are influenced by promotional appeals, product positioning and design, pricing approaches, and channels of distribution (Loudon and Della Bitta 1993). However, there is still the need for further research in this area to determine the origin of values, how firmly they are held by consumers, and their influence on consumer behaviour for a wider group of products.

Rokeach (1979) suggested that there are two main types of values, namely, terminal values and instrumental values. Instrumental values, such as ‘honest’ and ‘capable’, are basically the modes of behaviour by which an individual can achieve the terminal, or end value. Terminal values, which include values such as ‘wisdom’ and ‘happiness’, are acquired early in life and tend to be more stable than instrumental values which may change as a result of the socialisation process (Prakash 1984). Rokeach developed a measuring instrument called the Rokeach Value Survey (sic.), or RVS, that “attempts to identify major end-states of human existence and the behavioural modes for achieving them” (Rokeach 1979, p. 50). The RVS asks individuals to rank 18 terminal values and 18 instrumental values in order of importance as guiding principles, and Rokeach suggested that “extensive research with it in different societies has consistently shown that it is both a reliable and valid measuring instrument” (p. 50). The terminal and instrumental values that are contained in the RVS are presented in Table 4.1. Based on studies conducted in the United States looking at the relationship between purchases of major appliances and values, it was found that terminal values tended to guide choice among product classes and instrumental values tended to guide choice among brands (Loudon and Della Bitta 1993).

Table 4.1 The Rokeach Value Survey TERMINAL VALUES

Wisdom (a mature understanding of life) Freedom (independence, free choice) Self-respect (self-esteem)

A sense of accomplishment (lasting contribution) A world at peace (free of war and conflict) Equality (brotherhood, equal opportunity for all) A world of beauty (beauty of nature and the arts) Inner harmony (freedom from inner conflict) Family security (taking care of loved ones) Social recognition (respect, admiration) Happiness (contentedness)

An exciting life (a stimulating, active life) A comfortable life (a prosperous life) True friendship (close companionship) Mature love (sexual and spiritual intimacy) National security (protection from attack) Pleasure (an enjoyable, leisurely life) Salvation (saved, eternal life)