Phase Two: Assessment

The second phase of the programme was to assess each child’s reading skills and attitude. The purpose of this assessment was diagnostic which enabled actions to be personalised for each child in response to their strengths and needs. In the context of assessing young children’s early language skills, Anderson et al. (2013) make the point that standardised tests only measure standard English usage. Consequently a range of specific and contextually appropriate but non-standard uses of language may not be accurately assessed. The same could be said of many standardised reading tests; that they do not measure a full range of skills in a multitude of reading situations. Anderson et al. (2013) offer a partial solution to this dilemma by suggesting that observation and parental assessment are valid forms of assessment. Consequently, part of the assessment undertaken with each child was a running record, which is a standardised observation of reading (though in a limited context) and parent views of their child’s reading were sought and included. Additional tools used for reading assessments included a reading attitude survey, and a phonological skills assessment. Each assessment task is described and justified below.

I sought each parent’s permission to undertake a range of assessment tasks with their child. Each task was outlined with the parent an agreement made

regarding the time and location for the assessment. Assent was sought from each child prior to completing each task. The data collected during the assessment phase contributed to the design of each individual intervention. Assessments of each child also contributed to the detailed picture of the impact of the intervention for each family.

3.9.2.1 Reading Skills

Measures of the reading skills of the children were gathered prior to the intervention and immediately following the intervention. This information enabled research question 2.1 to be answered and it provided descriptive information to guide each intervention. Specific data were collected on the children’s reading level, comprehension skills, phonological skills and strategy

use. One criticism of research into parent based reading interventions is that the reported results often omit measures of reading achievement and instead rely only on parental opinions to measure success (or lack of) (Ellis, 1996). While parental opinion was highly valued within this study, the collection and analysis of a range of data regarding reading skills contributed to the results of this study. Reading skills were measured with individual running records (Clay, 1985; Clay, 2000) taken from the PM Benchmark Kit (Nelley & Smith, 2002). Running

records are a form of Informal Reading Inventory. They were chosen as they are a comprehensive instrument that allows for measurement, analysis and

diagnosis in authentic aspects of reading including appropriate level, word accuracy, errors, self-corrections, fluency, strategy use, miscue analysis and comprehension (Farrall, 2012). The results from this tool can be used to inform the development of specifically tailored reading teaching plans for individuals (Fawson, Ludlow, Reutzel, Sudweeks, & Smith, 2006; Paris, 2002; Provost, Lambert, & Babkie, 2010).The running records were administered by the

researcher to increase consistency as this has been an issue reported in literature (Farrall, 2012; Fawson et al., 2006; Nilsson, 2013). They also allowed the

researcher to become increasingly aware of the children’s behaviour in response to the task. For example, paying heed to the nuances of body language added to a complex picture of an individual’s response to reading. Interpretations of behaviour were then used to inform the development of strategies for

individuals. Each test was recorded (with the child’s permission) so that notes taken during the test and the scoring of the running record could be checked for accuracy. To minimise bias in the scoring of the running records 20% of the recordings (chosen at random) were externally validated by a suitably qualified and experienced person who listened to the recording and checked the scoring. The PM benchmark kit was chosen for a variety of reasons. The kit is a New Zealand based resource and as such is likely to be culturally appropriate. Although not standardised it has been extensively trialled in New Zealand thereby increasing validity (Ministry of Education, 2010b). Most children in New Zealand are familiar with running records having experienced this type of

assessment as an integral part of their classroom programme. Children’s

familiarity with the tool should lead to reliable measurements of reading skills as the results will not be distorted by the child experiencing stress over a new assessment method. Finally, running records are frequently used as a measure of reading skills in a variety of research (Commare & Sedlack, 2003; Compton et al., 2010; Elsea, 2001; Guerrero, 2003; Hollingsworth, Sherman, & Zaugra, 2007; Lipsey, 2010).

While the running record provided some information on each individual’s

phonological skills, it was not a comprehensive measure in this area. In order to provide fuller information, children’s phonetic skills were assessed using a spelling inventory from the ‘Words Their Way’ programme (Bear et al., 2004). This tool was chosen as it is provides specific, diagnostic information on an individual’s ability to use phonemic information which can be matched to a developmental scale. There are strong links between an individual’s ability to manipulate letters to make words and their ability to read (Bear, Invernizzi, Templeton, & Johnston, 2012; Nicholson, 2005). There are varied ways of assessing phonics knowledge, including reading and spelling unknown words and pseudowords (Duff, Silvana, Bailey, & Snowling, 2015). The Words their Way spelling inventory was chosen because it requires participants to spell real words therefore it was likely to be a familiar type of assessment for the children and consequently less threatening. Additionally the format of the inventory allows for the individual words to be said, contextualised in a sentence and then repeated (Bear et al., 2012). When repeated in a sentence the word can be specifically contextualised for the child within their likely scope of experience which enhances the relevance of the test within a socio-cultural research paradigm.

3.9.2.2 Attitude toward reading

Data were gathered regarding each child’s attitude toward reading prior to and after the intervention. This dataset informed a response to research question 2.2 which inquired into attitudinal change during the intervention. This data also

contributed to each intervention. Changes in reading attitude during the assessment period represent one aspect of the impact of the intervention. Reading attitude was measured with a survey instrument called the Garfield Scale (McKenna & Kear, 1990). The Garfield scale was developed to assist teachers to measure children’s attitudes to both recreational and academic reading. Although over 25 years old, this tool is still used in current research in a variety of contexts, for example DeNaeghel, VanKeer, Vansteenkiste, and

Rosseel (2012); Janiak (2003); McKenna, Conradi, Lawrence, Jang, and Meyer (2012); Ozturk, Hill, and Yates (2015). The Garfield scale was chosen for several reasons. First, one of the stated specific purposes of the tool is to measure attitudinal impact before and after an intervention. Second, the authors of the scale assert that it is appropriate for children aged between 6 and 11. Third, the scale was normed using a large scale trial in the USA and it has been found to be valid and reliable. Fourth, the scale specifically looks at academic or school-based reading and at recreational reading. Given that the reading coaching was

designed to take place in a home environment, the instrument allowed the researcher to see if any attitudinal change that occurred in the home was also apparent in the classroom or vice versa. Finally, a pictorial scale is more likely to appeal to struggling readers than a word based scale. For struggling readers, negotiating pictures instead of text should be easier and therefore lead to more accurate results.

Participants completed the inventory by responding to 20 items and choosing one of four images of Garfield which best matched their opinion for each item thus completing a Likert scale. This tool was administered to all children in the study. The scale was administered according to McKenna and Kear’s (1990) directions with the small alterations outlined below.

There were two minor problems with the Garfield scale that needed to be overcome. First, the cartoon character which represents stages on the Likert scale is Garfield the cat. This was a popular contemporary cartoon at the time the scale was developed but may not be as familiar to children today. To lessen

the effect of this, the scale was introduced by focussing discussion on Garfield’s body language and facial expression with more emphasis than is suggested in the administration instructions for the scale. Second, the word ‘vacation’ is used in the scale. This Americanism was verbally equated with the word ‘holiday’ which is in more common usage in New Zealand.

3.9.2.3 Parents’ views of child reading

Before and after the intervention, data were gathered from the parents

regarding their opinions of their child’s reading habits, skills and attitudes. This process enabled the researcher to address research question 3.1 and contributed to the answering of question 2j. Parents’ views of their child’s reading were ascertained from a questionnaire based on the tool developed by Frank (2001). This specific survey was chosen as there is a strong link between the items for parents and the Garfield scale that children will be using. It allowed for

triangulation between these sources of data, thus increasing validity (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2006).