Pilling test

Pilling is formed by entangling fibres or filaments to discrete balls as a result of wear, abrasion, washing or a combination of all three on the surface of a garment (Brooks et al., 2006). Studies related to pilling show that there are three distinct stages in the life span of a pill.

129 – Fibres in a fabric are surfaced as a result of some mechanical action – The surface fibre matt or entangle into a similar configuration of a pill – A pill can eventually wear out or pulled away from the fabric (Gintis

and Mead, 1959).

An overall understanding of pilling can be achieved through determining the physical properties of the fabric which is related to fuzz formation, entanglement and pill break off. In order to test these features, it was necessary to verify fibres in each of the aforementioned three stages. Fuzz is formed when looser ends of fibre are present on the fabric surface when it is brushed or abraded (Gintis and Mead, 1959). In the case of knitted fabric, their constituent yarns provide a structure where the fibres are more mobile than in the woven structure. This mobility of the knitted structure increases the pilling propensity in knitted fabric. Pilling affects the durability and appearance in the knitted fabric; therefore pilling is another important property to assess the wear qualities of the knitted fabric (Brooks et al., 2006 and Saville, 2000). Pilling deteriorates the fabric appearance, reduces the wearability and eventually be discarded.

There are a number of pilling test methods and instruments used in different laboratories. The knitted swatches of six yarn samples used for comparative study in the project were tested in an ICI pilling box and the results are discussed in chapter 7.

5.6 Summary

This chapter examines the literature related with the objective measurements as an effective technique to evaluate the quality and the physical properties of recycled yarn compared to commercially available hand knitting yarns. By analysing the test results of twist constant, fabric shrinkage and pilling test; the information related to the strength and weakness of the recycled yarn were gathered and compared with the commercially sourced yarn samples. The results were reviewed in chapter 7. In the next stage of the research subjective analysis of these yarns were conducted with hand knitting experts and spinners. This aspect of the study

130 was aimed to determine the consumer perceptions of the knitting yarns and the resultant samples. The results gathered from the objective analysis were compared with the subjective experiments to measure the outcome. The triangulation of data collected from both the objective and subjective experiments were explained in chapter 7. These experiments has helped the researcher to determine the hand knitters requirements for selecting the knitting yarn and develop a recycled yarn that can compete with the similar commercially available yarn.

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Chapter 6

Sustainable marketing and branding strategy

for the recycled yarn

In this chapter, the researcher explores interpretations of sustainable marketing and branding; and critically reviews the literature related with the current factors influencing sustainable marketing organisations. The purpose of the study is to draw together ideas and theories to derive an appropriate sustainable: marketing, branding and packaging strategy for the recycled yarn – which can be adapted by a small-scale cooperative enterprise.

The literature review set the background for primary research and informed phase 1 of the research by providing an understanding about the basic factors related with the marketing of the recycled yarn. The findings from the initial survey with hand-knitters and informal interviews with the yarn retailers accounted for improving the quality of recycled yarn and also identifying the strength and limitations (discussed in 6.3). In order to achieve a holistic approach to the marketing strategy; a brand name, label and packaging was developed for the yarn.

6.1 What is sustainable marketing?

Kotler et al. (2008) define marketing as a social and managerial process by which individuals and groups obtain what they need (and want) through creating and exchanging products and value with others. Otherwise, marketing is a process directed towards satisfying the needs and wants through exchange of products, which comprises of finding out what the customer wants and then developing and distributing those products and services. The price of the product should be consistent with the requirements of the supplier and the perceptions of the consumer (Hannagan, 1992). The ultimate goal of an organisation is survival, but an organised behavioural system could exist only by adapting to environmental change and maintaining an ecological equilibrium (Dawson, 1969). Alderson (1965) gave attention to two environmental levels in the ecology of business: first is the proximate environment; where the market is in direct and

132 continuous contact where it buys, sells and competes. Second, is embracing the ultimate environment which is composed of: technological, ideological, moral and social dimensions. In the long run, business enterprise should maintain an ecological equilibrium within both environments. The organisational systems discussed by Dawson (1969) and Alderson (1965) consider the human role in the physical environment in business.

The extensive environmental damage caused by excessive: manufacturing, marketing, processing, discarding and polluting; has led to the suggestion that a sustainable future is not achievable if key factors of ecological degradation (e.g. population growth and high conception lifestyle) are ignored (Bandura, 2007). As public interest in well-being of society and environment has grown, it has led to sub-disciplines in marketing like the social marketing and green marketing. Social marketing is a marketing technique that is effectively applied to the promotion of social objectives and changing people’s behaviour for the benefit of the society as a whole (Kotler and Zaltman, 1971). On the other hand, green marketing is about companies applying a holistic management approach (from production to post- purchasing services) to balance the company’s need for profit, with a wider need to protect the environment (Peattie, 1995; Thogerson and Crompton, 2009; Gordon et al., 2011). As sustainability entered the main system of marketing innovative business thinkers developed a holistic business preposition of triple bottom line (3BL). Instead of considering the environment, society and profit separately, 3BL approach combines the three to increase the economic, social and environmental value of a business (Martin and Schouten, 2012; Belz and Peattie, 2009; Emery 2012).

Emery (2012) describes sustainable marketing as a paradigm that sits where the three elements of 3BL intersect. This can be defined as a holistic integrated approach with equal emphasis on: the environment, social equity and economic concerns; in the development of marketing strategies. Belz and Peattie (2009) explain a sustainability oriented version of marketing as a macro-marketing concept (marketing at an aggregated level rather than

133 individual players) that is ecologically oriented (taking into account the ecological limits of the planet), viable (from the perspective of technical feasibility and economic competitiveness), ethical (promoting greater social justice and equality) and relationship-based (management of relationships between business and their customers and stakeholders). Corresponding to this definition (Belz and Peattie, 2009) refer to sustainable marketing management as: planning, implementing, organising and controlling marketing resources and programmes to satisfy the needs and wants of the consumer – while meeting organisational objectives by considering social and environmental criteria. Martin and Schouten (2012) define sustainable marketing as a process of: creating, communicating and delivering value to the customers in a way that, throughout the process, both natural and human capital are preserved or enhanced. To sum up, sustainable marketing is about maintaining a long-term relationship with consumers, considering the social and the natural environment. In order to market sustainability, organisations have to interact with stakeholders and consumers about the socio-economic and environmental values of: products, services and ideas.