A good example of the concepts in the last two chapters is NASA’s “phased program planning” approach. This planning and review process is designed to keep projects aligned to NASA goals and within available resources, without premature commit- ment to a particular course of action.
The NASA system for organizing and managing projects varies from project to project, but common to all are the phases of (A) conceptualization, (B) study, (C) design and development, and (D) operations. Throughout a typical spacecraft program the proj- ect manager has responsibility for all phases, from initial study and project planning, to fabrication and integration of spacecraft and experiments, to launch and subse- quent acquisition and use of experimental data. An example of a typical large scien- tific space flight project is the hypothetical project “Cosmic,” a series of spacecraft for the collection and analysis of geophysical measurements of the planet Mercury.18
Phase A, conceptualization, is initiated when, at the urging of scientists, the di- rector for Lunar and Planetary Programs (LPP) at NASA headquarters asks the di- rector of Goddard Space Flight Center to begin preliminary analysis of how NASA might send either a probe or a satellite to Mercury to conduct geophysical experi- ments. The purpose of Phase A is to determine whether the mission is feasible and should be pursued. This involves looking at alternative project approaches, identify- ing the best ones for further refinement, defining project elements such as facilities, and operational and logistics support, as well as identifying necessary research or technology development. Phase A is conducted at NASA installations by a study team of NASA scientists and engineers appointed by the director of Goddard. The person chosen as study team leader is someone capable of becoming project manager should the concept prove favorable. The person selected is currently the spacecraft manager of a satellite project that is being completed.
At the same time, the director of LPP in Washington assigns a liaison with the Goddard study team. The liaison officer is chosen with the approval of the director of Goddard to assure a smooth working relationship. If the project is approved, the liai- son officer will become the program manager. (The distinction between project and pro- gram managers was discussed in Chapter 2.)
The preliminary analysis is favorable and the study team recommendation to pre- pare a proposal and proceed to Phase B is approved by Goddard management. Phase B, study, involves detailed study, comparative analysis, and preliminary systems de- sign. The study team leader and the liaison officer draft the project proposal and a pro- ject approval document. The approval document outlines resources and the field installation to oversee work (Goddard), specifies project constraints, and defines the number of spacecraft, type of launch vehicle, and allocation of funds and labor. The approval is for Phase B only.
The liaison officer coordinates and receives all necessary approvals from other in- volved program divisions and operating offices at NASA headquarters. Then the ap- proval document is sent to the top NASA administrator for a decision. With this approval, project “Cosmic” is authorized to begin.
Management formally names the Cosmic program manager (the liaison officer) and the Cosmic project manager (the study team leader). The project manager as- sembles a skeleton team to develop specifications for study contracts that will provide data to determine whether or not to proceed further. Estimated schedules and re- source requirements for the project are developed. The project team works with ma- jor project functional groups such as launch vehicle, reliability, data acquisition, and launch operations. Relationships are established to provide the necessary lead time
for equipment manufacture, testing, and operations. A detailed project plan is pre- pared outlining technical specifications, manpower, funds, management plans, sched- ules, milestones, and launch and tracking requirements to meet project objectives.
The project plan is approved by management at Goddard and NASA headquar- ters and becomes a contract between them. Headquarters sets up a formal informa- tion and control system and makes available the necessary financial resources. The project manager sends monthly (later weekly) reports to the program manager. This is important because, should the project run into difficulties, the program manager can work quickly to obtain or reallocate funds to support it.
The original approval document is updated throughout Phase B and becomes the authorization document for Phase C (design and development) or for both Phase C and Phase D (operations). During Phase B, the appropriate experiments are selected and the number of Cosmic flights is put at three. At the completion of Phase B, proj- ect Cosmic appears on NASA information and control systems that permit reviews of financial, schedule, and technical progress. At this point, less than 10 percent of total project costs have been incurred.
During Phase C contractors become involved in detailed engineering design, de- velopment of mock-ups, and completion of detailed specifications on all major sub- systems of the Cosmic spacecraft. When the project team completes design and supporting studies, it then develops RFPs for design, development, fabrication, and testing of final hardware and project operations.
The project manager has two associates: One facilitates coordination between the project and the experimenters; another coordinates activities for modification of the launch vehicle to meet requirements for the three flights. Members of the project team are also working at Cape Kennedy in preparation of launch, and at Jet Propulsion Laboratory in California which handles data acquisition from deep space probes.
When spacecraft fabrication begins, the project manager travels to the contrac- tor’s plants where he spends considerable time in conferences for design and test re- views, quality assurance, components testing, and system integration. Meanwhile the program manager keeps tabs on the project and keeps it “sold” at NASA. Both mana- gers participate in formal reviews to catch errors at critical points in the project. Usual reviews include
1. Conceptual design reviews (at end of Phase B) to evaluate preliminary designs and the design approach.
2. Detailed design reviews after design is frozen and before assembly begins to evaluate design approach testing.
3. Flight qualification reviews to determine hardware status and evaluate tests. 4. Flight readiness reviews to assure the appropriate state of completion before the
spacecraft is shipped to Cape Kennedy.
5. Flight operations review to evaluate orbital operations and spacecraft-ground support interface.
6. Other reviews to determine the state of readiness of communication networks, ground stations, and support facilities and personnel.
Phase D nominally begins with final preparation and launch of the first space- craft, Cosmic I. The project manager oversees the multiple key teams working in this phase, including the (1) NASA launch team, (2) NASA project management team, (3) NASA program management, (4) scientists whose experiments are on the space- craft, (5) prime contractors and subcontractors that built the spacecraft and launch vehicle, and (6) the Air Force team that controls the missile range. The spacecraft is “mated” with the launch vehicle and tested. During the last few moments of count-
down, only the project manager has authority to make the final irrevocable decision to “go.”
Launch data are recorded during the time between rocket lift-off and successful placement of the spacecraft in trajectory to Mercury. Problems are analyzed so as to avoid repetition with the next spacecraft. Once the spacecraft is on its way and com- munication and instrumentation are verifiably working and returning usable data, the project manager turns attention to Cosmic II—now in the early fabrication stage (Phase C). He continues to monitor Cosmic I operation because lessons from it will be applied to improve the design of Cosmic III, which is, by then, in Phase B.