Policy implications

In thinking about the final, broader objective of this research of understanding what support households need in order to facilitate improved coping and adaptation in the future, there needs to be improved communication between local government and communities to allow for a greater understanding of the issues and stresses present within rural communities.

Impoverished rural communities simply do not have the resources, access to credit, technology, level of organization, and skills needed to engage in anticipatory long-term adaptation (Shackleton, 2006). Therefore, the responsibility falls largely on the state.

154 However, local government needs increased human, informational, and financial capacity and a clear delegation of responsibilities in order for these communities to benefit from the implementation of support strategies. There is a need for increased education amongst local government concerning adaptation and the practical implications of it. Local government and practitioners should become familiar with working in cross-disciplinary teams and adopting principles of adaptive management. In a study by Picketts et al. (2012), planner’s knowledge was one of the most significant barriers which contributed to a lack of adaptation planning at the local level across British Columbia, Canada. Politician and public knowledge were also amongst the key barriers

There is no quick fix for communities, such as Lesseyton and Willowvale, suffering from poverty. This research has provided findings that can be useful for policy makers in that it has highlighted the key issues that need to be addressed and therefore can guide local level planning accordingly. It has been suggested that individuals with low levels of education and those without any formal labour market experience are the two most difficult groups to assist in terms of poverty relief (May et al., 1998). Self-employment and support for income generating activities has been suggested to be one of the best ways of helping such groups (May et al., 1998). The longer-term stressors of unemployment and poverty need to be addressed in order to improve household adaptive capacity; however this will entail a lengthy process as weak institutional structures and capacity presents many challenges.

Additional efforts however can improve household capacity to respond to change. Starting from the ground up, the two communities desperately need more engagement with local government officials and extension officers who can help lead long-term community projects that will allow households to be more independent and self-sustaining. Knowledge and skills development workshops need to be held where these communities can be introduced to the principles of sustainable land-use systems and how to create a sustainable relationship between agriculture, harvesting natural resources and renewable sources of energy, and recycling of wastes. A study by Schindler and Wustemann (2005) showed how a rural village in India benefitted from various development projects implemented, including soil and water conservation schemes. These projects were supported by NGOs and several training and lecture sessions (combining traditional and scientific knowledge) were held on sustainable agriculture (Schindler and Wustemann, 2005). The results of the study showed a marked reduction in erosion and improved soil fertility, an increase in crop yield and biodiversity,

155 and an increase in income levels. From Schindler and Wustemann’s (2005) study, it is evident that a sustainable land-use system can offer households stability, diversity and increased resilience against future shocks and stressors, and help address their issues of food and water insecurity. Additional studies have shown that rural households engaged in agriculture and food gardening are often less poor and more food secure, and that agricultural growth has contributed to poverty alleviation (Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO), 2004: Irz et al., 2001). A study by Machethe et al. (2004), in the Limpopo Province of South Africa, showed farming to be the most important source of income to ‘rich’ households, whilst pension was the most important income source for ‘poor’ households (see Machethe et al. (2004) for the way in which households were categorized as ‘rich’ and ‘poor’), emphasizing the role agriculture plays in poverty reduction (Machethe et al., 2004).

A sustainable land-use system can be an important natural safety-net for individuals and households coping against shocks and the future impacts of climate change as it will ensure that basic daily needs are meet, increasing household food security. In addition, women, who have been identified as particularly vulnerable (Chapter 5), will largely benefit from such a system as studies have shown women to be the primary agriculturalists and users of natural and cultivated resources (Aggarwal et al., 2001; Commission for Gender Equality, 2010’;

Ruiters and Wildschutt, 2010). With this noted, it may be necessary for households to reverse the current trend of replacing farming with increased consumerism. There needs to be a reinvigoration of home-based agriculture as part of a diversified livelihood portfolio, rather than large-scale commercial production, to enhance food security.

Adaptation strategies within rural communities must be embedded and supported by local government (O’Brien et al., 2004). Once-off projects with inadequate funding and no long-term support will be unable to increase communities’ capacity to adapt (O’Brien et al., 2004, Thomas et al., 2005). Kepe and Tessaro (2012) highlight the long history of attempts by government to implement food security projects in South Africa through agricultural development and supporting small-scale farmers. Examples of these quasi-private companies are AsigSA Eastern Cape and Ntinga, who typically offer inputs, advice and management to rural landowners, and expect a share of the harvests or payment in return. In addition, Kepe and Tessaro (2012) mentioned the mixed success of these projects due to many project participants withdrawing after a short period of time. Respondents, within two rural villages of the Eastern Cape, revealed that land reform, and more specifically having outsiders control and manage their land, was a major determinant in villagers’ continued participation in food

156 security projects (Kepe and Tessaro, 2012). This information highlights the need to address land issues in South Africa where rights remain unclear, particularly regarding deals between the private sector or agencies and the interests of the rural poor (Kepe and Tessaro, 2012), to ensure rural inhabitants commitment to community projects.

As discussed above (section 8.3.3), adaptive social protection suggests ways in which South Africa’s social protection system can become more robust in the context of climate change.

The socio-economic context of South Africa has been shaped by historical disenfranchisement, creating an environment of poverty traps for the poor (Taylor, 2002). As mentioned in Chapter 2, multiple stressors of climate change and HIV/AIDS threaten the effectiveness of social protection initiatives; therefore it is important that South Africa’s social protection system takes a longer-term perspective for social protection to include the changing nature of shocks and stressors in the context of climate change (Davies et al., 2009).