POPULATION AND SAMPLE

According to Smith and Glass (1987), a sample is composed of units directly involved in the study and which is as representative as possible of the larger population. In this study, the unit under investigation is the individual, and this section describes how these individuals were selected and their characteristics.

6.2.1 Population

It was decided that the population from which the current sample was obtained needed to be restricted, not only to non-student adults, but adults within a certain age span. Much of the research regarding negative career thinking has focused on young adult student groups (Gordon, 1998; McWhirtner, Rasheed & Carothers, 2000; Weinstein, Healy & Ender, 2002).

In addition, many of the studies conducted on the concept of emotional intelligence have also used college age or student samples (for example: Brackett & Mayer, 2003; Brackett, Mayer & Warner, 2003; Mayer, Salovey, Caruso & Sitarenios, 2003). Brown, et al. (2003) point out that the generalizability of studies using student populations is limited and needs to include non-student groups. Non-student adults are more likely to be challenged by a variety of stressors including unemployment, issues related to family such as separation, divorce, etc., and possible physical issues than would be faced by students (Amundson & Borgan, 1996; Osipow, 1999; Patton & Creed, 2001; Phillips & Blustein, 1994; Super, Savickas, &

Super, 1996) and so negative career thinking and coping mechanisms are likely to be

different. As well, it has been recommended that research in emotional intelligence focus more on midlife adults whose differentiation of abilities is more likely to be maximized as compared with young adults or seniors (Schaie, 2001). There is, of course, no definitive age at which one can be said to be a midlife adult, and so it was decided that the career stages proposed by Donald Super (Super, 1990) be used as a guide. With respect to the “life/career rainbow” (Reardon, et al., 2000, p. 14), Super divides the working life of an individual into 5 age spans of which two are most germane to this study - the Establishment phase and the Maintenance phase, covering the ages of approximately 25 to 65. For this study, the criteria for inclusion, therefore, was that individuals needed to be adults between the ages of 25 and 65, and not attending post-secondary institutions or other training programs. In addition, participants were unemployed and Canadian residents with an adequate knowledge of the English language.

6.2.2 Sampling technique

Random sampling, while more preferable in empirical research for generalizability purposes, is not always possible when the study must rely on available subjects who must have completed a particular program. Non-probability, or more specifically, purposive sampling techniques (Babbie, 2001; Smith & Glass, 1987) were employed in this study since its purpose is to investigate emotional intelligence in adults in a career exploration program.

To ensure that conditions were as similar as possible between self-evaluations of negative career thinking, participants were recruited from only one career exploration program. This program is funded by a federal government of Canada ministry, Services Canada.

Cohen (1992) provides the numbers of participants required to achieve a medium effect size at a power level of 0,80 using an alpha coefficient level of 0,05 for various statistical tests.

Using the above parameters, the number of data sets required for the following statistical tests would be:

• for multiple regression analysis having two independent variables - at least 67;

• for multiple regression analysis having five independent variables – at least 91;

• for Pearson product moment correlations – at least 85 data sets.

For this research, the number of complete data sets is 193 which is therefore sufficient to meet the power and effect size conditions, thus reducing the probability of Type II error.

6.2.3 Sample characteristics

Participants meeting inclusion criteria were, on average, 41 years old with an age range from 25 to 63. Education level, as determined from intake information, varied from eight years of schooling to eighteen (Master’s degree) but averaged at end of high school (i.e. end of grade 12). This was corroborated by achievement testing showing average ability in reading, writing, and math to be at about the grade 12 level as well. Thirty-seven percent of participants were male and 63% female. None of the participants was employed at the time of intake.

6.2.4 Program description

Some individuals looking to enter the workforce are already sure of their occupational goals and are engaged in activities leading to employment. Others are not clear about their vocational choices. A career exploration program focuses on the latter group and assumes that clients are attending in order to clarify their career goals and aspirations. The career exploration and decision-making program from which the participants in this study were chosen was developed using the Cognitive Information Processing model (Peterson et al., 1996) described in Chapter 4. As described, the model is hierarchical in that self and occupational knowledge form the foundations for decision-making skills and for the executive processing domain at the top of the pyramid. Program content, therefore, focussed on assisting the individual to fill in gaps regarding self-knowledge in areas such as IQ, multiple intelligences including emotional intelligence, aptitudes, achievement (academic skills levels), personality, interests, values, etc. To accomplish this, specific content modules addressing these areas were taught to the client group by qualified career counsellors and learning specialists. In addition, individuals were encouraged and assisted in filling in gaps in occupational knowledge regarding the world of work – for example, types of occupations and how they might be related, training programs necessary to reach a vocational goal, funding availability, etc. Clients were counselled in decision-making skills. Using the knowledge gained, clients were then assisted in arriving at a career decision, a process,

which, by necessity, requires executive functioning by way of separating relevant from irrelevant information, problem solving, planning, monitoring, evaluating choices and regulating behaviour.

The above program components were designed to fit into a sixteen-day period of time although some clients achieved vocational clarity sooner than others and were able to complete in less time. Components were structured so as to be as similar for all clients as possible. Initial administration of the measure of negative career thoughts was given at the very beginning of the program before any other assessment or teaching had been done.