Power

1.4.2.1 Introduction

The second of the two central concepts that form part of this study, after the NQF, is power. Power (as interpreted by Foucault) is discussed at length in the second chapter of this thesis – the

following is therefore only a brief summary of that discussion, and is structured as follows:

• Foucault’s power – describing Foucault’s power as it occurs in various contexts.

• Power in the NQF discourse – the concept of power is further described by applying the Foucauldian interpretation to the NQF discourse.

• Guises of power – the way in which power “appears” in the NQF discourse.

1.4.2.2 Foucault’s power

The point has already been made that power and discourse are inextricably linked, more

specifically, that power relations cannot be established without discourse (Foucault, 1980). What has not been clarified is precisely what is meant by power, power relations, effects of power or any of the other “appearances” or “variants” of power. Temporarily postponing a more detailed

discussion of such variants of power to the next section, it is possible to briefly look at power itself.

As will be shown at length in Chapter 2 of this thesis, Foucault is notorious for taking a position and then later correcting that very position in favour of another. Using a bi-directional strategy that required a correlation between a thematic and periodic overview of Foucauldian theory, some progress was made to better understand his work, but also, importantly for this study, venture to interpret power in the context of this study on power in the NQF.

Foucault (1980:89) describes power as something that is

…neither given, nor exchanged, nor recovered, but rather exercised, and that [it] only exists in action.

Furthermore power is

…essentially that which represses. Power represses nature, the instincts, a class, individuals (Ibid.).

At this point three aspects of the concept of Foucault’s power in general are apparent: power is linked to discourse, power exists only in action and power represses. On all three counts it is clear that ‘power is not a substance or based in something’ (Berkhout, 2005:8). Foucault is interested in how power is exercised and does not try to develop strategies through which power can be

undermined (Smart in Hoy, 1986:169).

Other aspects of Foucault’s power include the link between power and knowledge (power and knowledge directly imply one another), and because there can be no “power free” society, power is conceptualised as

…a complex strategical situation or relation which produces reality (Smart, 1994:7).

Davidson (in Hoy, 1986:226) also suggests that the notion of power should not be reduced to a consequence of legislation and social structure only. Berkhout (2005:9) argues for an analysis of power based on everyday practices that are shaped by current discourses:

…power must be broadly understood but at the same time analysed carefully as anchored in what he [Foucault] calls “micropractices” – those practices that constitute everyday life in modern societies and that are shaped by current discourses.

In summary, and based on the points discussed above, Foucault’s power is interpreted as follows within the context of this study:

Power exists in complex strategic relationships with reality, is established within discourse, represses, is linked to knowledge and is studied at the point where it is completely invested in its real and effective practices.

1.4.2.3 Power in the NQF discourse

Two key concepts, as they relate to this study that aims to improve NQF development and implementation, have been discussed in this section: the NQF, and power.

On the one hand NQFs have been described as social constructs that are ‘negotiated for the people by the people’ (in Kraak and Young, 2001:30) – a view supported by Cosser (2001) and Isaacs (2001). It has also been argued that NQFs can be described using an NQF typology, also showing that NQFs do more than organise or arrange qualifications into levels and credits, but that they are complex social constructs with specific overt and/or covert purposes implemented and overseen by government bureaucracies. It was furthermore explained that a broader NQF discourse exists, one that is particularly conducive to the establishment of power relations, and represents an amalgamation of divergent and even contradictory views – mainly in support of the development of an NQF that replaces all other existing education and training structures.

On the other hand, Foucault’s power has been described as requiring a medium to be established, i.e. a discourse; power exists only in action, i.e. power is not given or exchanged, nor recovered;

power represses, even though power is not only negative; power and knowledge directly imply each other; power cannot be reduced to a consequence of only legislation and social structure; an analysis of power should be based on everyday practices that are shaped by current discourses (for example, the way in which education and training practices have been influenced by the NQF discourse).

The following interpretation of power in the NQF discourse is arrived at:

Power exists in the NQF discourse in that different NQF stakeholders continually and consistently exercise power - this power represses the voices of some stakeholders in order to make others more dominant.

1.4.2.4 The guises of power

As alluded to earlier, the different “appearances” of power in discourse are, in the context of this study, collectively referred to as “guises” of power. Six such guises are briefly described in this section (a more detailed discussion is found in Chapters 2 and 5):

• Forms of power

• Techniques of power

• Power relations

• Origins of power

• Manifestations of power

• Effects of power.

The sequence is chosen to make it possible for a logical progression from the guises that are made up of pre-identified categories (i.e. forms of power, techniques of power and power relations) that only require the identification of such examples in the NQF discourse, to the guises that

require a more detailed interrogation of the empirical dataset (i.e. origins of power, manifestations of power and effects of power).

Forms of power

Forms of power include, amongst others: legal power, political power and busno power. In the context of this study, forms of power are interpreted as follows:

Forms of power are the characterisable and unique mode in which power appears within the NQF discourse.

Techniques of power

Numerous techniques of power exist. The following are some examples: bureaucratisation (to make something into a system of government that is based on unnecessary official procedures, divisions and hierarchy of authority); regulation (to subject to restrictions) and colonisation (to take possession of and lay claim over that which is weaker). In the context of this study, the techniques of power are interpreted as follows:

Techniques of power are the methods or systems by which power is exercised in the NQF discourse.

Power relations

Power relations are not about “who has power” but are rather about the matrix of power relations in which roleplayers are embattled. In the context of this study, power relations are interpreted as follows:

Power relations are the web of overt and covert interactions and associations between and amongst NQF stakeholders.

Origins of power

In the context of this study, origins of power are interpreted as follows:

Origins of power are the primary sources, starting points and/or catalysts that are directly linked to the noticeable way in which power appears at the point of its direct relationship with the NQF.

Manifestations of power

In the context of this study, manifestations of power are interpreted as follows:

Manifestations of power are the noticeable and observable appearances of power at the point where they are in direct and immediate relationship with objects within the NQF discourse.

Effects of power

Both positive and negative effects of power exist in the NQF discourse, although the range is preferably understood to lie on a continuum between the two extremes. In the context of this study, the effects of power are interpreted as follows:

Effects of power are the outcomes or results of the manifestations of power in the NQF discourse.

Moving from this improved understanding of the NQF discourse as well as Foucault’s power, it is necessary to identify a suitable research design, including research methods, within the limits of the Foucauldian theoretical framework, that will be robust enough to address the problem of power struggles in NQF development and implementation. This is discussed in the next section.