• No results found

CHAPTER IV: DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS 4.1 General Discussion

4.3 Practical Implications

Practically, this research provides implications to the industry. Our findings propose totally different strategies for both up-scale and discount stores that sell stereotype-related products. Since targets of stereotype threat generate higher purchase intention for high-priced products, up-scale department stores should increase consumers’

feeling of being stereotyped so as to increase sales of their high priced items. They can achieve this goal by inducing consumers to recall situations that are consistent with product-related negative stereotypes, or increase the number of outgroup sales people. On the contrary, since stereotype threat lowers purchase intention for low-priced products,

discount stores should decrease stereotype threat so as to achieve higher sales. This could possibly be achieved through putting up posters that ask consumers to reappraise

potential stereotype threatening situations, or decrease the number of outgroup salespeople.

References

Adams, G., Garcia, D. M., Purdie-Vaughns, V., & Steele, C. M. (2006). The Detrimental Effects of a Suggestion of Sexism in an Instruction Situation. Journal of

experimental social psychology, 42, 602-615.

Alba, J. W., Mela, C. F., Shimp, T. A., & Urbany, J. E. (1999). The Effect of Discount Frequency and Depth on Consumer Price Judgments. Journal of consumer research, 26, 99-114.

Aronson, J., Fried, C. B., & Good, C. (2002). Reducing the Effects of Stereotype Threat on African American College Students by Shaping Theories of Intelligence.

Journal of experimental social psychology, 38, 113-125.

Aronson, J., Lustina, M. J., Good, C., Keough, K., Steele, C. M., & Brown, J. (1999).

When White Men Can't Do Math: Necessary and Sufficient Factors in Stereotype Threat. Journal of experimental social psychology, 35, 29-46.

Ashcraft, M. H., & Kirk, E. P. (2001). The Relationships among Working Memory, Math Anxiety, and Performance. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 130, 224.

Baddeley, A. (2000). The Episodic Buffer: A New Component of Working Memory?

Trends in cognitive sciences, 4, 417-423.

Baddeley, A. D., & Hitch, G. J. (1974). Working Memory. The psychology of learning and motivation, 8, 47-89.

Barrouillet, P., Bernardin, S., Portrat, S., Vergauwe, E., & Camos, V. (2007). Time and Cognitive Load in Working Memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology:

Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 33, 570.

Baumeister, R. F. (2002). Ego Depletion and Self-Control Failure: An Energy Model of the Self's Executive Function. Self and Identity, 1, 129-136.

Baumeister, R. F., Bratslavsky, E., Muraven, M., & Tice, D. M. (1998). Ego Depletion: Is the Active Self a Limited Resource? Journal of personality and social

psychology, 74, 1252.

Baumeister, R. F., & Vohs, K. D. (2007). Self‐Regulation, Ego Depletion, and Motivation. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 1, 115-128.

Beilock, S. L., Jellison, W. A., Rydell, R. J., McConnell, A. R., & Carr, T. H. (2006). On the Causal Mechanisms of Stereotype Threat: Can Skills That Don't Rely Heavily on Working Memory Still Be Threatened? Personality and social psychology bulletin, 32, 1059-1071.

Beilock, S. L., Rydell, R. J., & McConnell, A. R. (2007). Stereotype Threat and Working Memory: Mechanisms, Alleviation, and Spillover. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 136, 256.

Ben-Zeev, T., Fein, S., & Inzlicht, M. (2005). Arousal and Stereotype Threat. Journal of experimental social psychology, 41, 174-181.

Blascovich, J., Spencer, S. J., Quinn, D., & Steele, C. (2001). African Americans and High Blood Pressure: The Role of Stereotype Threat. Psychological Science, 12, 225-229.

Bornemann, T., & Homburg, C. (2011). Psychological Distance and the Dual Role of Price. Journal of consumer research, 38, 490-504.

Bosson, J. K., Haymovitz, E. L., & Pinel, E. C. (2004). When Saying and Doing Diverge:

The Effects of Stereotype Threat on Self-Reported Versus Non-Verbal Anxiety.

Journal of experimental social psychology, 40, 247-255.

Boucher, K. L., Rydell, R. J., Van Loo, K. J., & Rydell, M. T. (2012). Reducing Stereotype Threat in Order to Facilitate Learning. European Journal of Social Psychology, 42, 174-179.

Bradach, J. L., & Eccles, R. G. (1989). Price, Authority, and Trust: From Ideal Types to Plural Forms. Annual review of sociology, 97-118.

Braunstein-bercovitz, H. (2003). Does Stress Enhance or Impair Selective Attention? The Effects of Stress and Perceptual Load on Negative Priming. Anxiety, stress, and coping, 16, 345-357.

Brown, R. P., & Pinel, E. C. (2003). Stigma on My Mind: Individual Differences in the Experience of Stereotype Threat. Journal of experimental social psychology, 39, 626-633.

Bruyneel, S., Dewitte, S., Vohs, K. D., & Warlop, L. (2006). Repeated Choosing Increases Susceptibility to Affective Product Features. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 23, 215-225.

Cadinu, M., Maass, A., Rosabianca, A., & Kiesner, J. (2005). Why Do Women Underperform under Stereotype Threat? Evidence for the Role of Negative Thinking. Psychological Science, 16, 572-578.

Carr, P. B., & Steele, C. M. (2010). Stereotype Threat Affects Financial Decision Making. Psychological Science, 21, 1411-1416.

Case, R., Kurland, D. M., & Goldberg, J. (1982). Operational Resources and the Growth of Short-Term Memory Span. Journal of experimental child psychology, 33, 386-404.

Chaiken, S. (1980). Heuristic Versus Systematic Information Processing and the Use of Source Versus Message Cues in Persuasion. Journal of personality and social psychology, 39, 752.

Chaiken, S., & Maheswaran, D. (1994). Heuristic Processing Can Bias Systematic Processing: Effects of Source Credibility, Argument Ambiguity, and Task Importance on Attitude Judgment. Journal of personality and social psychology, 66, 460.

Chaiken, S., & Trope, Y. (1999). Dual-Process Models in Social Psychology. New York:

Guilford.

Chajut, E., & Algom, D. (2003). Selective Attention Improves under Stress: Implications for Theories of Social Cognition. Journal of personality and social psychology, 85, 231.

Clark, R., Anderson, N. B., Clark, V. R., & Williams, D. R. (1999). Racism as a Stressor for African Americans: A Biopsychosocial Model. American psychologist, 54, 805.

Cohen, G. L., & Garcia, J. (2005). " I Am Us": Negative Stereotypes as Collective Threats. Journal of personality and social psychology, 89, 566.

Cole, B., Matheson, K., & Anisman, H. (2007). The Moderating Role of Ethnic Identity and Social Support on Relations between Well‐Being and Academic

Performance1. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 37, 592-615.

Compas, B. E., Connor-Smith, J. K., Saltzman, H., Thomsen, A. H., & Wadsworth, M. E.

(2001). Coping with Stress During Childhood and Adolescence: Problems, Progress, and Potential in Theory and Research. Psychological bulletin, 127, 87.

Conway, A. R., Cowan, N., & Bunting, M. F. (2001). The Cocktail Party Phenomenon Revisited: The Importance of Working memory resources. Psychonomic Bulletin

& Review, 8, 331-335.

Cooper, J., & Weaver, K. D. (2003). Gender and Computers: Understanding the Digital Divide: Psychology Press.

Cowan, N. (1995). Attention and Memory: Oxford University Press.

Cowan, N. (2010). The Magical Mystery Four How Is Working memory resources Limited, and Why? Current directions in psychological science, 19, 51-57.

Cox, D. F. (1967). Risk Handling in Consumer Behavior–an Intensive Study of Two Cases. In Risk Taking and Information Handling in Consumer Behavior (pp. 34-81). Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Croizet, J.-C., Després, G., Gauzins, M.-E., Huguet, P., Leyens, J.-P., & Méot, A. (2004).

Stereotype Threat Undermines Intellectual Performance by Triggering a

Disruptive Mental Load. Personality and social psychology bulletin, 30, 721-731.

Cronley, M. L., Posavac, S. S., Meyer, T., Kardes, F. R., & Kellaris, J. J. (2005). A Selective Hypothesis Testing Perspective on Price-Quality Inference and Inference-Based Choice. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 15, 159-169.

Cullen, M. J., Hardison, C. M., & Sackett, P. R. (2004). Using Sat-Grade and Ability-Job Performance Relationships to Test Predictions Derived from Stereotype Threat Theory. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89, 220.

Daneman, M., & Carpenter, P. A. (1980). Individual Differences in Working Memory and Reading. Journal of verbal learning and verbal behavior, 19, 450-466.

Dar-Nimrod, I., & Heine, S. J. (2006). Exposure to Scientific Theories Affects Women's Math Performance. Science, 314, 435-435.

Darden, W. R., & Schwinghammer, J. K. (1985). The Influence of Social Characteristics on Perceived Quality in Patronage Choice Behavior. Perceived quality: How consumers view stores and merchandise, 161-172.

Davies, P. G., Spencer, S. J., Quinn, D. M., & Gerhardstein, R. (2002). Consuming Images: How Television Commercials That Elicit Stereotype Threat Can Restrain Women Academically and Professionally. Personality and social psychology bulletin, 28, 1615-1628.

De Neys, W. (2006). Dual Processing in Reasoning Two Systems but One Reasoner.

Psychological Science, 17, 428-433.

Derakshan, N., & Eysenck, M. W. (1998). Working memory resources in High Trait-Anxious and Repressor Groups. Cognition & Emotion, 12, 697-713.

Dodds, W. B., Monroe, K. B., & Grewal, D. (1991). Effects of Price, Brand, and Store Information on Buyers' Product Evaluations. Journal of Marketing Research (JMR), 28.

Ellenbogen, M. A., Schwartzman, A. E., Stewart, J., & Walker, C. D. (2002). Stress and Selective Attention: The Interplay of Mood, Cortisol Levels, and Emotional Information Processing. Psychophysiology, 39, 723-732.

Engle, R. W. (2002). Working memory resources as Executive Attention. Current directions in psychological science, 11, 19-23.

Engle, R. W., Tuholski, S. W., Laughlin, J. E., & Conway, A. R. (1999). Working

Memory, Short-Term Memory, and General Fluid Intelligence: A Latent-Variable Approach. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 128, 309.

Erickson, G. M., & Johansson, J. K. (1985). The Role of Price in Multi-Attribute Product Evaluations. Journal of consumer research, 195-199.

Etgar, M., & Malhotra, N. K. (1981). Determinants of Price Dependency: Personal and Perceptual Factors. Journal of consumer research, 217-222.

Eysenck, M. W., & Calvo, M. G. (1992). Anxiety and Performance: The Processing Resources Theory. Cognition & Emotion, 6, 409-434.

Fischer, P., Greitemeyer, T., & Frey, D. (2008). Self-Regulation and Selective Exposure:

The Impact of Depleted Self-Regulation Resources on Confirmatory Information Processing. Journal of personality and social psychology, 94, 382.

Folkman, S., & Lazarus, R. S. (1980). An Analysis of Coping in a Middle-Aged Community Sample. Journal of health and social behavior, 219-239.

Frantz, C. M., Cuddy, A. J., Burnett, M., Ray, H., & Hart, A. (2004). A Threat in the Computer: The Race Implicit Association Test as a Stereotype Threat Experience.

Personality and social psychology bulletin, 30, 1611-1624.

Gailliot, M. T., Schmeichel, B. J., & Baumeister, R. F. (2006). Self-Regulatory Processes Defend against the Threat of Death: Effects of Self-Control Depletion and Trait Self-Control on Thoughts and Fears of Dying. Journal of personality and social psychology, 91, 49.

Gonzales, P. M., Blanton, H., & Williams, K. J. (2002). The Effects of Stereotype Threat and Double-Minority Status on the Test Performance of Latino Women.

Personality and social psychology bulletin, 28, 659-670.

Good, C., Aronson, J., & Harder, J. A. (2008). Problems in the Pipeline: Stereotype Threat and Women's Achievement in High-Level Math Courses. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 29, 17-28.

Good, C., Aronson, J., & Inzlicht, M. (2003). Improving Adolescents' Standardized Test Performance: An Intervention to Reduce the Effects of Stereotype Threat. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 24, 645-662.

Good, C., Rattan, A., & Dweck, C. S. (2012). Why Do Women Opt Out? Sense of Belonging and Women's Representation in Mathematics. Journal of personality and social psychology, 102, 700.

Gross, J. J. (1998). Antecedent-and Response-Focused Emotion Regulation: Divergent Consequences for Experience, Expression, and Physiology. Journal of personality and social psychology, 74, 224.

Gross, J. J. (2001). Emotion Regulation in Adulthood: Timing Is Everything. Current directions in psychological science, 10, 214-219.

Gross, J. J. (2002). Emotion Regulation: Affective, Cognitive, and Social Consequences.

Psychophysiology, 39, 281-291.

Gross, J. J., & Levenson, R. W. (1993). Emotional Suppression: Physiology, Self-Report, and Expressive Behavior. Journal of personality and social psychology, 64, 970.

Gross, J. J., & Levenson, R. W. (1997). Hiding Feelings: The Acute Effects of Inhibiting Negative and Positive Emotion. Journal of abnormal psychology, 106, 95.

Henderson, L. (1972). Spatial and Verbal Codes and the Capacity of Stm. The Quarterly journal of experimental psychology, 24, 485-495.

Hess, T. M., Auman, C., Colcombe, S. J., & Rahhal, T. A. (2003). The Impact of Stereotype Threat on Age Differences in Memory Performance. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 58, P3-P11.

Huguet, P., & Regner, I. (2007). Stereotype Threat among Schoolgirls in Quasi-Ordinary Classroom Circumstances. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99, 545.

Inzlicht, M., & Ben-Zeev, T. (2000). A Threatening Intellectual Environment: Why Females Are Susceptible to Experiencing Problem-Solving Deficits in the Presence of Males. Psychological Science, 11, 365-371.

Inzlicht, M., & Kang, S. K. (2010). Stereotype Threat Spillover: How Coping with Threats to Social Identity Affects Aggression, Eating, Decision Making, and Attention. Journal of personality and social psychology, 99, 467.

Inzlicht, M., McKay, L., & Aronson, J. (2006). Stigma as Ego Depletion How Being the Target of Prejudice Affects Self-Control. Psychological Science, 17, 262-269.

Jacoby, J., & Olson, J. C. (1977). Consumer Response to Price: An Attitudinal,

Information Processing Perspective. In Y. Wind & M. Greenberg (Eds.), Moving ahead with attitude research (Vol. 39, pp. 73-86). Chicago, IL: American

Marketing Association.

Jacoby, J., Olson, J. C., & Haddock, R. A. (1971). Price, Brand Name, and Product Composition Characteristics as Determinants of Perceived Quality. Journal of Applied Psychology, 55, 570.

Janis, I. L., & Mann, L. (1977). Decision Making: A Psychological Analysis of Conflict, Choice, and Commitment: Free Press.

Johns, M., Inzlicht, M., & Schmader, T. (2008). Stereotype Threat and Executive

Resource Depletion: Examining the Influence of Emotion Regulation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 137, 691.

Jonides, J., Schumacher, E. H., Smith, E. E., Lauber, E. J., Awh, E., Minoshima, S., &

Koeppe, R. A. (1997). Verbal Working Memory Load Affects Regional Brain Activation as Measured by Pet. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 9, 462-475.

Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking, Fast and Slow: Macmillan.

Kaiser, C. R., Vick, S. B., & Major, B. (2006). Prejudice Expectations Moderate Preconscious Attention to Cues That Are Threatening to Social Identity.

Psychological Science, 17, 332-338.

Kane, M. J., Hambrick, D. Z., Tuholski, S. W., Wilhelm, O., Payne, T. W., & Engle, R.

W. (2004). The Generality of Working memory resources: A Latent-Variable Approach to Verbal and Visuospatial Memory Span and Reasoning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 133, 189.

Kardes, F. R., Cronley, M. L., Kellaris, J. J., & Posavac, S. S. (2004). The Role of

Selective Information Processing in Price‐Quality Inference. Journal of consumer research, 31, 368-374.

Kardes, F. R., Posavac, S. S., & Cronley, M. L. (2004). Consumer Inference: A Review of Processes, Bases, and Judgment Contexts. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 14, 230-256.

Keller, J. (2002). Blatant Stereotype Threat and Women's Math Performance:

Self-Handicapping as a Strategic Means to Cope with Obtrusive Negative Performance Expectations. Sex Roles, 47, 193-198.

Keller, J. (2007). Stereotype Threat in Classroom Settings: The Interactive Effect of Domain Identification, Task Difficulty and Stereotype Threat on Female Students' Maths Performance. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 77, 323-338.

Klein, K., & Boals, A. (2001). The Relationship of Life Event Stress and Working memory resources. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 15, 565-579.

Koch, S. C., Müller, S. M., & Sieverding, M. (2008). Women and Computers. Effects of Stereotype Threat on Attribution of Failure. Computers & Education, 51, 1795-1803.

Kray, L. J., Galinsky, A. D., & Thompson, L. (2002). Reversing the Gender Gap in Negotiations: An Exploration of Stereotype Regeneration. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 87, 386-410.

Lalwani, A. K., & Shavitt, S. (2013). You Get What You Pay For? Self-Construal Influences Price-Quality Judgments. Journal of consumer research, 40, 255-267.

Lazarus, R. S. (1991). Progress on a Cognitive-Motivational-Relational Theory of Emotion. American psychologist, 46, 819.

Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress. Appraisal and Coping, New York.

Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1987). Transactional Theory and Research on Emotions and Coping. European Journal of personality, 1, 141-169.

Leavitt, H. J. (1954). A Note on Some Experimental Findings About the Meanings of Price. The Journal of Business, 27.

Lee, K., Kim, H., & Vohs, K. D. (2011). Stereotype Threat in the Marketplace: Consumer Anxiety and Purchase Intentions. Journal of consumer research, 38, 343-357.

Leever, S., Dunigan, M., & Turner, M. (2002). The Power to Change Is in Our Hands.

Journal of Computing Sciences in Colleges, 18, 169-179.

Lesko, A. C., & Corpus, J. H. (2006). Discounting the Difficult: How High Math-Identified Women Respond to Stereotype Threat. Sex Roles, 54, 113-125.

Levy, B. (1996). Improving Memory in Old Age through Implicit Self-Stereotyping.

Journal of personality and social psychology, 71, 1092.

Lindzey, G., Gilbert, D., & Fiske, S. T. (2003). The Handbook of Social Psychology:

Oxford University Press.

Logel, C., Iserman, E. C., Davies, P. G., Quinn, D. M., & Spencer, S. J. (2009). The Perils of Double Consciousness: The Role of Thought Suppression in Stereotype Threat. Journal of experimental social psychology, 45, 299-312.

Logel, C., Walton, G. M., Spencer, S. J., Iserman, E. C., von Hippel, W., & Bell, A. E.

(2009). Interacting with Sexist Men Triggers Social Identity Threat among Female Engineers. Journal of personality and social psychology, 96, 1089.

Luck, S. J., & Vogel, E. K. (1997). The Capacity of Visual Working Memory for Features and Conjunctions. Nature, 390, 279-281.

Major, B., & O'Brien, L. T. (2005). The Social Psychology of Stigma. Annu. Rev.

Psychol., 56, 393-421.

Major, B., Spencer, S., Schmader, T., Wolfe, C., & Crocker, J. (1998). Coping with Negative Stereotypes About Intellectual Performance: The Role of Psychological Disengagement. Personality and social psychology bulletin, 24, 34-50.

Marx, D. M., Stapel, D. A., & Muller, D. (2005). We Can Do It: The Interplay of Construal Orientation and Social Comparisons under Threat. Journal of personality and social psychology, 88, 432.

McFarland, L. A., Lev-Arey, D. M., & Ziegert, J. C. (2003). An Examination of

Stereotype Threat in a Motivational Context. Human Performance, 16, 181-205.

McIntyre, R. B., Paulson, R. M., & Lord, C. G. (2003). Alleviating Women’s Mathematics Stereotype Threat through Salience of Group Achievements.

Journal of experimental social psychology, 39, 83-90.

Miller, G. A. (1956). The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing Information. Psychological review, 63, 81.

Miller, G. A. (1994). The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing Information. Psychological review, 101, 343.

Miller, G. A., Galanter, E., & Pribram, K. H. (1960). Plans and the Structure of Behavior.

Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Inc., New York.

Mischel, W., & Ayduk, O. (2004). Willpower in a Cognitive-Affective Processing

System. Handbook of self-regulation: Research, theory, and applications, 99-129.

Miyazaki, A. D., Grewal, D., & Goodstein, R. C. (2005). The Effect of Multiple Extrinsic Cues on Quality Perceptions: A Matter of Consistency. Journal of consumer research, 32, 146-153.

Monroe, K. B. (2003). Pricing: Making Profitable Decisions (3rd ed.). Burr Ridge, IL:

McGraw-Hill/Irwin.

Monroe, K. B., & Krishnan, R. (1985). The Effect of Price on Subjective Product Evaluations. Perceived quality: How consumers view stores and merchandise, 209-232.

Muraven, M., & Baumeister, R. F. (2000). Self-Regulation and Depletion of Limited Resources: Does Self-Control Resemble a Muscle? Psychological bulletin, 126, 247.

Muraven, M., Gagné, M., & Rosman, H. (2008). Helpful Self-Control: Autonomy Support, Vitality, and Depletion. Journal of experimental social psychology, 44, 573-585.

Muraven, M., & Slessareva, E. (2003). Mechanisms of Self-Control Failure: Motivation and Limited Resources. Personality and social psychology bulletin, 29, 894-906.

Muraven, M., Tice, D. M., & Baumeister, R. F. (1998). Self-Control as a Limited Resource: Regulatory Depletion Patterns. Journal of personality and social psychology, 74, 774.

Murphy, M. C., Steele, C. M., & Gross, J. J. (2007). Signaling Threat How Situational Cues Affect Women in Math, Science, and Engineering Settings. Psychological Science, 18, 879-885.

Nass, C., Moon, Y., & Green, N. (1997). Are Machines Gender Neutral? Gender‐

Stereotypic Responses to Computers with Voices. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 27, 864-876.

Neuville, E., & Croizet, J.-C. (2007). Can Salience of Gender Identity Impair Math Performance among 7–8 Years Old Girls? The Moderating Role of Task Difficulty. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 22, 307-316.

O'Brien, L. T., & Crandall, C. S. (2003). Stereotype Threat and Arousal: Effects on Women's Math Performance. Personality and social psychology bulletin, 29, 782-789.

Obrist, P. A. (1981). Cardiovascular Psychophysiology. New York: Plenum Press.

Olson, J. C. (1974). Cue Properties of Price: Literature Review and Theoretical Considerations: College of Business Administration, Pennsylvania State University.

Olson, J. C., & Jacoby, J. (1972). Cue Utilization in the Quality Perception Process. In M.

Venkatesan (Ed.), Proceedings of the Third Annual Conference of the Association for Consumer Research (Vol. 167-79). Iowa City: Association for Consumer Research.

Pascoe, E. A., & Smart Richman, L. (2009). Perceived Discrimination and Health: A Meta-Analytic Review. Psychological bulletin, 135, 531.

Pennington, B. F. (1994). The Working Memory Function of the Prefrontal Cortices:

Implications for Developmental and Individual Differences in Cognition. In The Development of Future Oriented Processes. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Pinel, E. C. (1999). Stigma Consciousness: The Psychological Legacy of Social Stereotypes. Journal of personality and social psychology, 76, 114.

Pocheptsova, A., Amir, O., Dhar, R., & Baumeister, R. F. (2009). Deciding without Resources: Resource Depletion and Choice in Context. Journal of Marketing Research, 46, 344-355.

Pronin, E., Steele, C. M., & Ross, L. (2004). Identity Bifurcation in Response to Stereotype Threat: Women and Mathematics. Journal of experimental social psychology, 40, 152-168.

Purohit, D., & Srivastava, J. (2001). Effect of Manufacturer Reputation, Retailer

Reputation, and Product Warranty on Consumer Judgments of Product Quality: A Cue Diagnosticity Framework. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 10, 123-134.

Rao, A. R., & Monroe, K. B. (1989). The Effect of Price, Brand Name, and Store Name on Buyers' Perceptions of Product Quality: An Integrative Review. Journal of Marketing Research, 351-357.

Richards, J. M. (2004). The Cognitive Consequences of Concealing Feelings. Current directions in psychological science, 13, 131-134.

Richards, J. M., & Gross, J. J. (2000). Emotion Regulation and Memory: The Cognitive Costs of Keeping One's Cool. Journal of personality and social psychology, 79, 410.

Richeson, J. A., & Shelton, J. N. (2003). When Prejudice Does Not Pay Effects of Interracial Contact on Executive Function. Psychological Science, 14, 287-290.

Ripley, A. (2005). Who Says a Woman Can't Be Einstein? In Time (pp. 35-44).

Roberts Jr, R. J., & Pennington, B. F. (1996). An Interactive Framework for Examining Prefrontal Cognitive Processes. Developmental neuropsychology, 12, 105-126.

Rottenstreich, Y., Sood, S., & Brenner, L. (2007). Feeling and Thinking in Memory‐

Based Versus Stimulus‐Based Choices. Journal of consumer research, 33, 461-469.

Rozin, P., Hormes, J. M., Faith, M. S., & Wansink, B. (2012). Is Meat Male? A Quantitative Multimethod Framework to Establish Metaphoric Relationships.

Journal of consumer research, 39, 629-643.

Rydell, R. J., Rydell, M. T., & Boucher, K. L. (2010). The Effect of Negative Performance Stereotypes on Learning. Journal of personality and social psychology, 99, 883.

Schmader, T. (2002). Gender Identification Moderates Stereotype Threat Effects on Women's Math Performance. Journal of experimental social psychology, 38, 194-201.

Schmader, T., & Johns, M. (2003). Converging Evidence That Stereotype Threat Reduces Working memory resources. Journal of personality and social psychology, 85, 440.

Schmader, T., Johns, M., & Forbes, C. (2008). An Integrated Process Model of Stereotype Threat Effects on Performance. Psychological review, 115, 336.

Schmeichel, B. J. (2007). Attention Control, Memory Updating, and Emotion Regulation Temporarily Reduce the Capacity for Executive Control. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 136, 241.

Schmeichel, B. J., Vohs, K. D., & Baumeister, R. F. (2003). Intellectual Performance and Ego Depletion: Role of the Self in Logical Reasoning and Other Information Processing. Journal of personality and social psychology, 85, 33.

Seymour, E. (1995). The Loss of Women from Science, Mathematics, and Engineering Undergraduate Majors: An Explanatory Account. Science Education, 79, 437-473.

Smith, C. A., & Ellsworth, P. C. (1985). Patterns of Cognitive Appraisal in Emotion.

Journal of personality and social psychology, 48, 813.

Smith, J. L., & White, P. H. (2002). An Examination of Implicitly Activated, Explicitly Activated, and Nullified Stereotypes on Mathematical Performance: It's Not Just a Woman's Issue. Sex Roles, 47, 179-191.

Sorg, B. A., & Whitney, P. (1992). The Effect of Trait Anxiety and Situational Stress on Working memory resources. Journal of Research in Personality, 26, 235-241.

Speisman, J. C., Lazarus, R. S., Mordkoff, A., & Davison, L. (1964). Experimental Reduction of Stress Based on Ego-Defense Theory. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 68, 367.

Spencer, S. J., Steele, C. M., & Quinn, D. M. (1999). Stereotype Threat and Women's Math Performance. Journal of experimental social psychology, 35, 4-28.

Stangor, C., & Sechrist, G. B. (1998). Conceptualizing the Determinants of Academic Choice and Task Performance across Social Groups: Academic Press.

Steele, C. M., & Aronson, J. (1995). Stereotype Threat and the Intellectual Test

Performance of African Americans. Journal of personality and social psychology, 69, 797.

Steele, J., James, J. B., & Barnett, R. C. (2002). Learning in a Man’s World: Examining the Perceptions of Undergraduate Women in Male‐Dominated Academic Areas.

Steele, J., James, J. B., & Barnett, R. C. (2002). Learning in a Man’s World: Examining the Perceptions of Undergraduate Women in Male‐Dominated Academic Areas.