Previous Tests Measuring Guessing from Context

This section reviews how the skill of guessing from context has been measured. A number of studies have employed think-aloud protocols which require learners to verbalise what they think while guessing the meanings of unknown words from context. For the purpose of identifying types of contextual clues, Ames (1966) replaced every 50th words with nonsense words and asked the participants to guess the meanings of the nonsense words aloud. Here is an example.

I wonder how much the security of the country is being safeguarded by the paunchy reservist who spends one evening a week at the Reserve center thacing the fat with the boys, thereby escaping from the dishes at home.

In this example, the italicised word thacing is the test word to be guessed. Each participant was asked to respond with a synonym or a definition of the target word, and then to explain what part of the text helped him or her guess its meaning. This technique was also used by Quealy (1969), Rankin and Overholser (1969), and Haynes (1993).

54

Other researchers (Arden-Close, 1993; Fukkink, Blok, & de Glopper, 2001; Haastrup, 1987, 1991; Huckin & Bloch, 1993; Laufer & Sim, 1985; Morrison, 1996; Nassaji, 2003; Parry, 1991) also used think-aloud protocols but used real words instead of nonsense words. One of the advantages of this format is that it is sensitive to partial gains in vocabulary knowledge. For example, Nassaji (2003) classified the participants’ answers into three categories: successful, partially successful, and unsuccessful. Another advantage is that it may provide learners with diagnostic information about their weaknesses in guessing. For example, teachers may recognise that some learners do not make use of a wide variety of contextual clues which may help derive the meaning of unknown words. However, it takes too much time to administer the test because think-aloud techniques typically require researchers to observe each learner’s responses individually. It is also difficult to grade the test objectively because a variety of answers may be possible (e.g., synonyms and definitions). This indicates a need for a test that is easy to administer and grade.

Another way of measuring the skill of guessing from context is to use a multiple- choice format which requires learners to choose the meaning of the target words from a set of options. Here is an example used by Schatz and Baldwin (1986). The italicised word ruefully is the target word to be guessed.

He takes out an envelope from a drawer, and takes paper money from it. He looks at it ruefully, and then with decision puts it into his pocket, with decision takes down his hat. Then dressed, with indecision looks out of the window to the house of Mrs. Lithebe, and shakes his head.

RUEFULLY (A) sorrowfully (B) thankfully (C) fearfully (D) casually (E) longingly

55

In this example, learners must choose the meaning of ruefully from five options. Carnine, et al. (1984) also used a multiple-choice format where learners must choose the meaning of the target word from four options. Recognising the incremental nature of vocabulary learning, other researchers (Nagy, et al., 1987; Nagy, et al., 1985) created three levels of multiple-choice items for each target word. The level of difficulty was determined based on the similarity in meaning between the target word and the distractors. The items at the most difficult level require a clear understanding of the meaning of the target words, while those at the easiest level require a vague understanding of it because the distractors were created so that they would be as dissimilar as possible even in terms of part of speech. These studies indicate that a multiple-choice format is easier to administer and grade than a think-aloud technique because the studies with the former format tended to have a greater number of participants than those with the latter technique. However, the multiple-choice formats used in the previous studies do not provide any information about how learners may improve their guessing skill because it measures only one aspect of guessing; that is, deriving the meaning of unknown words. It is unclear from this format why a learner was not successful in deriving the meaning of unknown words. In order for the GCT to be a useful tool for improving learners’ VLP, this problem needs to be resolved.

In summary, the problems with previous tests of guessing from context include 1) inability to identify learners’ weaknesses and 2) administrative difficulty. In the present research, the test format was determined so that the above-mentioned problems may be resolved. The format of the GCT meets the following criteria:

1. The test identifies learners’ weaknesses in guessing; and 2. The test is easy to complete and grade.

56

guessing from context: knowledge of part of speech, contextual clues, and meaning. Measuring these aspects is of practical value because the GCT may provide learners with diagnostic information about their weaknesses in guessing. In order to meet the second criterion, the GCT is written in a multiple-choice format. This allows easy administration and objective and quick grading. The subsequent sections provide an in- depth discussion on the procedure for selecting test words, creating passages, and writing items for each of the three sections.