Principles behind Materials Development

Developments in the field of language learning have led different linguists to suggest their own frameworks for preparing language learning materials. In many cases this also involves highlighting the shortcomings in existing commercially produced textbooks. For instance, the coursebooks remain conventional and stereotyped in spite of their stated assertions of

adopting the ‘communicative approach’ [see section 3.3.3 above]. This implies that these books consistently continue to emphasis the language analysis approach while disregarding the need for learners’ personal engagement with the provided materials:

… coursebook materials are focusing more and more narrowly on the encoding and decoding of language rather than opening up rich opportunities for experience, engagement and effect.

(Tomlinson, 2003: 441)

In addition, Mares (2003) terms the speaking activities being used in most textbooks as “contextualized functional drills which are often highly controlled” (2003: 130). Moreover, there is more emphasis on activities that require learners to produce language rather than on receptive comprehension-based tasks which research has shown to facilitate language learning (Mares, 2003).

Tomlinson (2008) goes on to elaborate on the weaknesses inherent in materials which hinder language acquisition. First of all, the presented language is not authentic; instead it is

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“simplified” and “de-contextualized” denying the learners opportunities to encounter real language (2008: 8). Moreover, generally the practice tasks are too controlled and mechanical requiring undemanding procedures (like “substitution” and “transformation”) aiming towards “accurate outputs rather than successful outcomes” (2008: 6 and 4). Furthermore, these activities are neither cognitive nor affective. Finally, the textbooks utilize “bland, safe, harmonized” texts (2008: 8).

Moving beyond criticisms, various proposals for preparing effective materials have been presented. Tomlinson (1998, 2003 and 2008) has provided the most comprehensive list of general theoretical principles. He proposes that the materials should have appealing content, attractive presentation, novelty and provide a variety of texts and activities so that they have an impact on the target learners. Then the content of the coursebooks while being relevant to the students’ lives should make them conscious of and responsive to the represented culture. In addition, the learners should be engaged in contextualized tasks which reflect real-life language use and involve “meaningful communication”; they should also be exposed to authentic texts (2008: 4). In fact, only inspiring and thought-provoking texts based on

significant topics can help develop listening and reading skills. In the same way, the best way of acquiring production skills is to create opportunities which motivate the learners “to say what they think is worth saying” (2003: 440). Importantly, they should be encouraged to indulge in extensive listening and reading of “relevant, motivating and engaging” texts (Tomlinson, 2003: 439) ensuring interaction with authentic language.

Tomlinson goes on to propose that the textbooks should have a personal voice and ensure personal participation of learners in a relaxed environment by engaging them in valuable and

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affective activities. Moreover, they should not overburden the students with knowledge, but instead should incorporate inspiring and problematic though attainable tasks so that the students are encouraged to gain confidence. Furthermore, the coursebooks should promote creative, analytical and “higher order” skills (like “connecting, predicting, interpreting, evaluating”) from the beginning, and should be learner-centred and discovery-based (Tomlinson, 2008: 6). The students should perceive the materials as being relevant and useful. Finally the tasks should lead towards effective outputs of language. (Tomlinson, 1998, 2003 and 2008)

Likewise, discussing his theoretical framework, Richards (2001) has declared that the materials should make the learning experience enjoyable and innovative for the learners, allow for independent work and present them with occasions for “self-assessment”. The students in turn should feel that they have gained something useful from the textbooks.

Crawford (2002) also asserts that coursebooks should present authentic language and the activities should be contextualized, realistic, meaningful and purposeful. For this reason she suggests that language teaching materials should incorporate video dramas which have the added advantage of introducing the essential audio visual element thus creating “a learning environment that is rich in linguistic and cultural information about the target language” (2002: 85). However, such a component will increase the price of the textbook, and

moreover, will be useless in teaching situations which lack audio visual facilities like video players.

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A framework for textbook preparation presented by Mares (2003) is based on the premises of Lewis (1993) and Nunan (1999), who highlighted the basic human tendency “to learn

partially many different things rather than systematically gain control over building blocks that lead to an organized fluency” (2003: 135). Mares asserts that these books should primarily aim to “provide the learners with comprehensible input… in an engaging way” (2003: 134). Thus the materials should include a variety of texts and genuinely

communicative activities which provide opportunities for reflection. He goes on to criticize the tendency of coursebooks to be prescriptive about what should be learnt when it has been shown that language learning is “an unpredictable and non-incremental process” (2003: 137). Finally, he maintains that the focus should be more on receptive skills, and the ‘Observe- Hypothesizes-Experiment’ cycle (instead of the conventional ‘Presentation-Practice- Production’ approach) should be adopted.

In the end, it is important to touch upon Bolitho’s (2003) proposals that the textbooks should incorporate activities which provide varied input of authentic language and require the learners to exploit the data using cognitive processes like analyzing (referred to as ‘language awareness activities’). Such tasks will make the students think critically “about how language is used for different purposes” (2003: 425) and provide a “real context to their struggles with language systems” (2003: 425).

Some of the beliefs presented above are supported by the researcher and so helped to

determine the relevant evaluation framework for the present research. These assumptions are presented in Figures 4.1 and 4.2:

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Figure: 4.1

Significant Principles of Materials Development – I Figure: 4.2

Significant Principles of Materials Development – II