Principles of Cooperative Learning

The principles of cooperative learning is what has been identified by The University of Tennessee at Chattanooga (1998) as the characteristics of cooperative learning and are as follows:

• Students work together in small groups containing two to five members • Students are positively interdependent

• Activities are structured so that students need each other to accomplish their common tasks or learning activities

• Students are individually accountable or responsible for their work or learning (cited in Sims, 2010)

Moreover, Oliver (1999) conducted a research study and came out with three principles similar to the four outlined by the University of Tennessee. Oliver coined /names the principles the main tenets of cooperative learning as follows:

81

• Individual and group accountability: each student is accountable for a specific task or topic as well as topics assigned to other group members

• Positive interdependence: each team benefits when all members perform well, and is held accountable when one or more members do not; “sink or swim together”

• Group processing: students coached on group process skills-supporting differences, listening, providing feedback, gatekeeping to ensure all participate, coaching others, reaching consensus.

Brown and Ciuffetelli Parker (2009) as well as Siltala (2010) look at the principles as the five basic and essential elements to cooperative learning, which are discussed beneath:

1. Positive interdependence

They explain that there should be full participation by students and they should put their best effort to the group activity. They also hint that task members must be aware of their obligation to themselves and to the group as a whole. Van Wyk (2007) adds that when learners understand that they are interdependent on one another, they become obliged to work to achieve the goals of the group.

2. Face-to-Face Promotive Interaction

The explanation here is that members ensure that others succeed as they are also progressing. Individuals in the group take it upon themselves to explain and assist one another for understanding and completion of tasks. Johnson and Johnson (1986) earlier identified three ways in which the interaction process amongst learners takes place. Learners compete with one another to determine who is the best (competitive goal structure), or they work on their own to achieve a goal (individualistic goal structure), or they work together to achieve a common goal (cooperative goal structure), after which the group as a whole is rewarded.

82 3. Individual and Group Accountability

The proponents of the five elements explain that first, each task team member is responsible in demonstrating mastery of the content under study and secondly, each member is accountable for their learning and work, therefore eliminating “social loafing”. In support of this assertion Van Wyk (2007: 157) states that “The purpose of any learning activity is to pursue maximum individual learning performance. Feedback mechanisms are necessary to determine each learner’s mastery level, if learners are expected to support and help one another.” Slavin (1987b) and Smith (1987) both agree to the issue of individual responsibility eventually contributing to the success of the whole group.

4. Social Skills

This principle seeks to establish that teaching of content to learners must be done to ensure the success of cooperative learning and also to inculcate in them skills such as effective communication, interpersonal and group skills. To Taylor (1991) cited in Van Wyk (2007) and Smith (2000), the social skill is termed interpersonal and small-group skills. Taylor is of the opinion there is the need to ensure a high level of cooperation among learners so that they can interact and decide how tasks will be assigned to members of the task team. Smith (2000) adds that “group formation is not a once-off occurrence, but rather a continual process that encompasses a number of separate and consecutive phases and these phases are termed; forming, storming, norming and performing”.

5. Group Processing

It is important for task teams to often evaluate how effectively they have performed so they can plan strategies to improve upon what has been done. According to Brown & Ciuffetelli Parker (2009) and Siltala (2010), two characteristics must prevail in order to ensure considerable improvement in student achievement. The first characteristic is that the group are made to work together for a group goal or recognition and the second is creating the feeling that the success of the group depends on each task member’s

83

learning towards the achievement of the goal. Solomon et al., (1992: 108) describe the group processing principle as ‘intragroup communication’. They opine that, the focus of this principle falls primarily on performance and the development of life skills such as role acceptance, information sharing and respect.

Yager, Johnson, Johnson and Snider (1986) found out that high-, medium-, and low- achieving participants rated higher on daily achievement, as far as group processing conditions existed, than did participants who engaged in cooperation without any group processing or embarked on tasks with individualistic efforts.

3.6 Cooperative Learning Teaching Techniques /Strategies

Balkcom (1992) cited in Barkley, Cross and Major (2005) and Schul (2011) establish that there are many cooperative learning techniques that can be categorized in accordance to the skill that they enhance. Barkley et al. (2005) concedes that “…it is important to recognize that many cooperative learning exercises can be developed to fit within multiple categories.” The categories include Barkley et al. put under the microscope include: discussion, reciprocal teaching, graphic organizers, writing and problem solving. To them each category is made up of a number of potential structures that help in the development of cooperative learning exercises.

Some of the techniques used under the cooperative learning strategy are discussed briefly:

Group Investigations are structured to emphasize higher-order thinking skills which includes analysis and evaluation. To Balkcom (1992), students involved in group investigations work together to produce a group project, which they may have a hand in selecting.

(STAD) Student Teams-Achievement Divisions is used for teaching grades 2-12. Students who vary in academic abilities are assigned to 4 or 5 member teams to enable studying what has been initially taught by the teacher and to help each task team

84

member reach his or her highest level of achievement possible. Afterwards students are tested individually. Teams earn certificates or other recognition based on the degree to which all team members have progressed over their past records (Balkcom, 1992; Siefert & Rosmary, 2009).

Jigsaw was developed by Aronson and his associates in the late 1970s. According to Coffey (2008), jigsaw is a cooperative learning technique that was created with the aim of reducing conflict and enhancing positive educational outcomes. The jigsaw technique is useful in helping students realize they are essential components of a team and that it encourages cooperation in a learning environment. A further explanation of the technique is that students are members of two groups, which are home group and expert group. Students in the heterogeneous home group are each assigned a different topic and once a topic has been identified, students leave their home groups and group with the other students with the topic they have been assigned. In the new group, students learn the material together before returning to their home group and once back they are back in their home group, each student is accountable for teaching his or her assigned topic (Schul, 2011).

Jigsaw II is used with narrative material in grades 3-12. Each team member is