Principles of Learning

Principles of learning are a set of guidelines or conditions necessary for teaching and learning to take place effectively. These principles of learning are derived mainly from learning theories and to some extent, from the cognitive styles, thinking styles, and learning styles. Learning principles are sometimes referred to as the laws of learning.

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2.8.1 Principle of Readiness

Madhurima and Sharma (2009), state that individuals learn best when they are ready to learn, and they do not learn when they see no reason for learning. Getting the learner to be ready for learning is usually the responsibility of the educator. Readiness implies a degree of single-mindedness and eagerness (Madhurima and Sharma 2009:319).This principle, is associated with putting the learners in the right frame of mind to receive the new learning of that day by preparing the learner to conceptualize the intended learning outcome. It is associated with setting of induction or the motivation phase, to make learners responsive, receptive to the new learning, which is the concept that the learners need to conceptualize. Setting induction refers to any device, process or action which induces learners to attend and learn effectively (Madhurima and Sharma 2009, Farrant 1991). This principle of readiness to learn is associated with arousing interest to learn in the students. This principle of readiness to learn encompasses the physical, psychological, cognitive and emotional preparedness to receive and conceptualize the intended learning outcomes. In short for effective teaching and learning to take place the students should be ready to receive the new learning, thus, ready to conceptualize the intended learning outcome, otherwise without readiness of the learners, teaching and learning becomes futile. Farrant (1991:106) describes readiness as dependent upon appropriate maturation having taken place in the child’s physical and mental development to enable the learner to learn specific skills. This means readiness may not be separated from the learners’ cognitive development, cognitive styles and thinking styles. In short conceptualization of intended learning outcomes is a result of the learner’s readiness to learn, in terms of their physical, psychological, emotional, mental or otherwise.

2.8.2 Principle of Repetition/Effect

The Principle of repetition or effect is a result of the findings of Thorndike’s law of effect (Morris 1988:189), which was furthered by Skinner’s reinforcement concept and to some extent to Pavlov’s classical conditioning (Rhodes and Fincham 2005:24- 25).Repetition is associated with improved learning that is when the learners repeat

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several times what they have learnt, it is assumed that, they then remember that information and then put the information in the long term memory. This repetition also refers to continuous use of instructional media, putting the information learnt into long term memory, which is associated with lifelong learning, and this is the memory where learners retrieve information during examinations, thus repetition aids conceptualization of intended Learning outcomes. Repetition is important when the learners are exposed to key or important instructional media that trigger other information to come when the learner is confronted with an academic situation that needs retrieval of information from the long term memory in order to solve the situation. This principle of repetition or exercise is linked to Thorndike’s connectionism, is that a connection between what is learnt and memory becomes strengthened with practice and it will be weakened when practice is discontinued (Culatta 2013). The principle of exercise or repetition has a “rule” developed by educational practitioners now in the teaching and learning process. “Whatever is taught, must be ever practiced”, simply put, students should practice what they have been taught. Madhurima and Sharma (2009) reinforce this principle when they describe that the principle of exercise states that those things most often repeated are best remembered. It has the basis of drill and practice. In other words the mind cannot retain and apply new concepts after a single exposure, and every time practice occurs, learning continues. Thus the law of exercise, repetition or effect has it that conceptualization of intended learning outcomes is a result of the learner exposed to the stimulus continuously (Madhurima and Sharma 2009, Culatta 2013). This is the reason why educators leave instructional media such as charts, models or other materials at the disposal of learners so as to repetitively see them or use them in order to enhance conceptualization of intended learning outcomes.

2.8.3 Principle of Motivation

Learning is associated with motivation of the learner to learn. It is the duty of the educator to motivate the learners in his/her domain. Motivation is associated with rewards, as the saying goes, “what gets rewarded, gets done”. Simply put in other terms, learners need acknowledgement when they do good, and this motivates them to

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do better or continue to do good. It is associated with Skinner‘s reinforcement, basically referring to strengthening or emphasize a feeling, or an idea or a habit so that it may continue to exist in the learner (Farrant 1991:113). Motivation also refers to causing a process to continue or increase intensity. Motivation is associated with a stimulus which increases the probability of a response recurring. It is in line with Stimulus(S)- Response(R) theory of the likes of Skinner, Thorndike, and Pavlov to mention a few. Motivation can be inform of rewards (positive reinforcement), Negative reinforcement or punishment. The educator may positively reinforce by giving good comments, such as “very good, good trial, excellent work et cetera” Negative reinforcement, therefore is associated with negative effects on the learner for example, “Not pleasing, work below standard etcetera”, while punishment is the removal of a privilege for the learner from the learning environment, and it is a response from the environment that decreases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. This punishment weakens behavior by either directly applying unpleasant stimulus or removing potentially rewarding stimulus. Therefore conceptualization of intended learning out comes is associated with reinforcement as motivation of the learners to retain what has been learnt. Instructional media reinforces what is learnt.

2.8.4 Principle of Participation

Participation of learners during the teaching and learning process, distinguishes rote learning from active learning, teacher centered approach from student centered approach, autocratic teaching style from democratic/participative teaching style. This then means the participation of learner is paramount to the conceptualization of intended learning out comes, simply by getting involved practically in their learning. All theories of learning infer that learners need to participate during the process of teaching and learning. It is associated with the principle of exercise, the principle of reinforcement. This means that, students will understand the intended learning out comes when they are involved by actually “doing” their learning. By actually participating, doing the “real thing” and this is Dale’s first stratum of direct purposeful

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experience, contributing to 90 % of the conceptualization of the intended learning out comes.

2.8.5 Principle of Sequence

This principle deals with the organization of learning, in a form of some orderliness. The structure of the content to be taught should be arranged in a sequential order so that learners can easily follow what is being taught and what the learner is supposed to learn. It must be sequenced from known to the unknown, simple to complex, general to specific, part to whole, step by step, concrete to abstract (Piaget , Bruner). This is in agreement with Bruner’s contention that anything can be taught to any one at any level provided that, what is taught has been reduced to the level of the learners and organized in such a way that the learner is capable of conceptualize the intended learning out comes. Erasmus, Loedolff, Mda and Nel (2013:200) argue that, to be most accessible, learning content and material should be delivered in a logical flow. They further state that, “Sequencing is the process by which the content and learning experiences are placed in configuration that will produce the most learning in the shortest possible time” (Erasmus et al 2013:200). The following are examples of the benefits of sequencing; it helps the learners to make transition from one skill or knowledge element to the other. It ensures that prerequisite skills or knowledge are acquired before new learning and knowledge are introduced. It prevents students’ confusion and failure (Erasmus et al 2013:200). This is the reason why lessons are structured in a sequential order from lesson introduction, lesson development and finally lesson conclusion.

2.8.6 Principle of Feedback/Evaluation

An important aspect of teaching and learning is the principle of feedback/evaluation. It refers to the teacher providing some form of value judgment to the responses or activities of learner on how the learner has managed to match expected standards. It is a process which is associated with comments (written or verbal) given by the teacher to

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the learner concerning the performance, the way forward, the weaknesses , the strengths or whether the performance is good or bad. This principle of feedback requires that feedback should be immediate before the learner has forgotten, and that such feedback is more beneficial than delayed feedback. Feedback has its roots in the Thorndike’s law. This law of effect, states that responses to a situation which are followed by rewarding state of affairs will be strengthened and become habitual responses to the situation. The purpose of giving feedback to the learners is to strengthen their responses, so that the knowledge acquired becomes part and parcel of the learner. It is one of the ways of reinforcement, either positively or negatively. Feedback, forms part of Skinner’s operant conditioning, and Pavlov’s classical conditioning, in that, the responses that are not reinforced are weakened and may die out a natural death, while responses that are reinforced are strengthened and become habits (Dyk and Erasmus 2003:123).Intermittent feedback, contributes to long retention of what is learnt, and continuous feedback increases the rate of learning. The principle of feedback is also associated with the principle of recency, so that the educators, repeat, restate, or re-emphasize important point through question and answer technique at the end of the lecture or give exercises in form of written work in order to fulfill the principle of participation.