When designing an exercise programme, there are several fundamental principles that an instructor must understand and apply.
Training principles
There are six main training principles:
1. Specificity
Any change or adaptation in the body’s muscles, organs and systems will be very specific to the type of training (stress) undertaken. This is the principle of specificity and means that if a participant wants to improve their running, they should run.
Swimming will elicit very generalised improvements in their cardiorespiratory system, which may improve the running fitness. However, for the best results, that person should undertake running training.
2. Progressive overload
To evoke an adaptation response the stimulus must be large enough to challenge the individual.
For example, improvements in range of movement can only be achieved by working at or beyond the current limits i.e. it should stretch the muscle and the client should feel this as a mild tension.
Muscles only get stronger when they are required to work harder than normal. For an adaptive response, the following examples can be used as progressions:
increase weight used
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increase number of repetitions
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increase number of sets
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decrease rest between sets
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3. Reversibility
Cessation of the stimulus which caused the adaptation to occur will result in a gradual decline. This principle states, therefore, that any improvements in fitness can only be maintained by regular exercise.
4. Adaptability
As previously mentioned, the body will react in accordance with the type of overload to which it is subjected. For example, high weight low repetition exercise can lead to an increase in strength and intense exercise, lasting less than 10 secs can cause adaptations in the ATP-CP system, making it more efficient. Lower intensity longer duration activities help train the efficiency of the aerobic energy system.
5. Recovery
An important concept to grasp is that adaptations occur, not during the activity, but in the time following it. Therefore, scheduled rest periods are a vital part of any exercise programme. This will include not only rest periods between exercises/sets within individual sessions, but between the sessions themselves as well.
6. Individuality
Although many clients may have similar general goals e.g. lose weight, get fitter, each is an individual with different physiological abilities e.g. ROM, current strength, CV level.
For a programme to be both safe and effective these factors must be considered. It should therefore, be designed specific to both a client’s needs and their abilities. For example, a client may have a restricted ROM at their hips so the programme may include additional stretching exercises in this region. If a client has a goal of running a marathon, weight-bearing CV exercise could be seen as more appropriate than cycling or rowing.
Conversely, a client may be quite large so low impact, non-weight-bearing exercise would be a safer alternative to high impact activities. Although free weight exercises are generally the best choice, sometimes a beginner client may find them too challenging and be unable to maintain correct technique. In this instance, it may be safer to begin with some resistance machine exercises until their conditioning improves.
Fitness variables
The basic fitness variables can be summarised using F.I.T.T.
F - Frequency - how often I - Intensity - how hard T - Time - how long
T - Type - the type of training (e.g. strength, endurance)
Frequency refers to the number of training sessions per week, month or year
Frequency
Frequency refers to the number of training sessions per week, month or year. A typical example for a beginner may be to start with a three times a week schedule with a day’s rest in between. Competitive athletes may train up to twelve times a week. The number of exercise sessions per week should reflect current fitness level, time available, any other commitments like family, and goals.
Intensity
This is an important aspect to be considered when designing an exercise programme.
It is normally monitored using % of 1RM, RPE or heart rate however there are additional factors that can influence the intensity:
Lever length: a lever arm (sometimes referred to as a moment arm) is the perpendicular distance between a force’s line of action and an axis of rotation (e.g. a pivot).
Changing the lever arm can have an impact upon exercise intensity and may be used as a progression.
This may sound complex, but in practice the concept is fairly simple. During a bicep curl the force’s line of action runs vertically and the forearm runs perpendicular to this, thus acting as the lever arm. Using this example, someone who has a longer forearm than the next person would have an increased lever arm during a bicep curl.
In some cases, it is possible to increase the lever arm in order to increase exercise intensity. When performing a stiff-legged deadlift whilst holding a medicine ball to the chest; raising the ball above the head during this exercise will increase the lever arm and thus exercise intensity (see picture below).
This principle may explain why the most successful power lifters tend to have shorter levers.
Speed: by increasing the speed of an exercise, intensity is increased e.g. a 100m sprint is a more intense activity than a marathon. Olympic lifts, such as the clean and jerk, where the objective is to lift the weight with maximum effort as quickly as possible is more intense than performing a bench press at a moderate tempo.
Gravity: gravity is the attraction between the Earth and an object on its surface or within its gravitational field. Gravity is a force applied to us at all times, which is evident to see with postural decline synonymous with ageing. It can be increased by adding external weight through the use of free weights, which in turn will increase intensity. An increase in body mass will also increase the effects of gravity.
Range of movement: moving through a full range of movement during exercise is important, although there are potential risks to the connective tissues and joints when approaching end ranges particularly where
momentum is involved. It is common place to see people lifting weights in the gym, for example, with an inappropriate load or too much weight. In this situation, it becomes more difficult to achieve a lift through a full range of movement as we are generally not as strong at the end range. By decreasing the load, the exercise is less intense, thus enabling the lifter to move through a fuller range. Sometimes less is more.
Time
The amount of time dedicated to the session is largely dependent upon the type of exercise, fitness level and the amount of time the client is willing to dedicate to exercise. When planning for cardiovascular training it is normally measured in minutes, whereas resistance training is usually measured in reps and sets.
Type
The mode or type of training may also be manipulated, as long as the specificity of the adaptation does not move away from the training goal. This can be done by changing the aerobic exercise from running to cycling, for example, or the resistance exercise from a lateral raise to a shoulder press. Changing the type of exercise or activity performed can be used to progress a programme and provide variety.
The amount of time dedicated to the session is largely dependent upon the type of exercise, fitness level and the amount of time the client is willing to dedicate to exercise
General FITT guidelines
Training goal Strength Hypertrophy Endurance Health
Cardio-vascular Adapted from Baechle and Earle (2000) It is worth noting that group activity sessions such as exercise to music and aqua sessions are unlikely to elicit maximal strength gains due to the nature of the sessions involved, but are more likely to improve muscular endurance and cardiovascular fitness.
When selecting a weekly workout frequency, the instructor also needs to consider the training age of the client.
The table below (Baechle and Earle, 2000) provides a simple illustration of how the instructor can manipulate the variable of frequency as the client’s training age / experience increases.
Training Status Frequency guidelines (sessions / week)
Beginner 2-3
Intermediate 3-4
Advanced 4-7
Total sessions per week for different training ages
Group activity session such as exercise to music and aqua sessions are unlikely to elicit maximal strength gains
Principles of a progressive training programme
Progression and periodisation
To avoid any plateaus or decreases in performance, the principles of progression and periodisation should be applied. Progression means that when an overload is applied it should be gradual and sufficient enough to elicit an adaptation, but it should not be excessive. Excessive stimulus is counterproductive since it will lead to overreaching and maybe overtraining. Excessive post-training muscular soreness, lasting up to 7-11 days after resistance training, is a prime example of excessive stimulus being applied.
Periodisation is the planned progression and manipulation of the training variables over a prolonged period of time. Varying the intensities and types of training in phases or cycles can cause greater improvements in performance and decrease the risks of overtraining and injury.
The human body is a master adapter, and given the right conditions it will adapt at a reasonable pace to any new stimulus. Once the client’s physiology has adapted to the workout stimulus, the onus is on the instructor to make appropriate programme modifications. If appropriate modifications are not made, the client’s progress is likely to plateau. In the medium to long term, progress stagnation is likely to cause dissatisfaction. Modifications to an exercise programme should be progressive and designed to build on the foundations set by previous sessions.
Each individual has a genetic potential that defines how far their fitness could progress if training, nutrition and recovery were optimised. The de-conditioned novice has a large adaptation potential because they are starting from a point far below their genetic limits. Fleck and Kraemer (1997), in fact, contend that almost
To avoid any plateaus or decreases in
performance, the principles of progression and periodisation should be applied
TIME FITNESS LEVEL
Genetic Potential
Beginner Level
Progress Rates Over Time
Plateau = time for a new stimulus!
The initial progress that beginners achieve often leads many instructors to assume that their programme design skills are perfectly adequate. Unfortunately, the initial gains are relatively short lived, and gains start to slow down. It is important that the fitness professional appreciates that a new stimulus needs to be introduced at this point, and structures an appropriate response to keep progress moving in a positive direction.
Overtraining
As previously mentioned, any exercise programme requires a balance between overload and recovery. Should the overload stimulus exceed the body’s ability to adapt either injury or overtraining may result.
The instructor should therefore be alert to the signs and symptoms of overtraining which include:
sudden poor co-ordination
• lack of ability to concentrate
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reduction in performance
• irritability, over sensitivity to criticism
• reported disrupted sleep patterns
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general lethargy
• sus
• ceptibility to colds, illness
Should the instructor suspect the individual to be overtraining, their programme should be regressed to enable them to recover fully.
Planning exercise for health reasons
The Health of the Nation Report (1994) revealed that 80% of the population were classified as inactive. The research showed obesity and coronary heart disease (CHD) to be on the increase. Both of these conditions can be positively managed by regular exercise, however, it was only in the 1992 Allied Dunbar Survey (ADS) that inactivity was identified as a serious risk factor for CHD.
The Health Education Authority (now called The National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence) produced the Active for Life Campaign after having completed extensive research on the nation’s physical activity in 1992.
The findings from HEA 1995 and ADS 1992 (relate to men and women, ages 16 to 74 years):
most adults believe they do enough exercise to keep fit
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70% of men and 80% of women are not active enough to benefit their
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health
90% of adults believe that it is fairly important to exercise regularly yet only
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40% do it
80% were not aware of how much to do
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2/3 of women and 1/3 of men found it difficult to walk briskly up a slight slope
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for a while
1/3 of men and 1/2 of women aged between 65 and 74 do not have sufficient
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Amount of exercise
As individuals vary, there is no single recommendation. For several years, recommendations have highlighted the need for vigorous activity at 60% - 90% of maximum heart rate, for twenty minutes, three times a week. These recommendations are still valid in terms of health and fitness benefits but most people will not keep to them. This is generally because the work rate is seen as too high and the recommendations as too prescriptive. It may suit those who are maintaining an active lifestyle but is unlikely to appeal to those who are just thinking about, or are preparing to change their lifestyle in relation to their activity levels.
Exercise and exercise success need redefining to include small increases in everyday lifestyle activity. The two recommendations (listed below) provided by the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) are aimed at appealing to the majority of the population who do not take part in regular activity. They need to be encouraged to make moderate physical activity part of their daily routine.
To reduce mortality (ACSM, 1998):
Frequency 5-7 times a week
Intensity 50-90% of MHR
Time 30 minutes in total
Type rhythmical use of large muscles
It should be stressed that 50% of MHR is acceptable and often advisable. The activity should make the person warm and slightly out of breath. Also, activity can be broken down into smaller sessions of not less than eight minutes at a time, for example, three sessions of ten minutes.
To maximise aerobic fitness and reduce mortality (ACSM, 1990):
Frequency 3-5 times a week
Intensity 60-90% of MHR
Time 20-60 minutes
Type continual, rhythmical use of large muscle groups
Definitions Light activity:
Little or no exertion normally does not cause a noticeable change in breathing.
Vigorous activity:
Requires sustained, large muscle movements at 60 to 70% or more of maximum heart rate, a level that makes a person sweaty and out of breath.
Examples of levels of intensity of activities:
Moderate Vigorous
Cycling for pleasure Step machine
Rowing Fly fishing Walking briskly
Cricket Golf Swimming Gardening Mowing the lawn
Badminton
Running at 5 mph Hockey, squash and tennis
Hard cycling Circuit training
Hill walking Skipping Stair climbing Cross country skiing
Rock climbing
Benefits
It is important to help people to understand that the benefits are not all physical but can be psychological, social and maybe even spiritual.
It cannot be guaranteed that everyone will experience all the benefits. However, being physically active will counter the effects of inactivity and therefore, can only be seen in a positive light.
Student Task
List as many benefits of physical activities you can think of:
Social Physical Psychological