Process and outcomes issues in coaching

Of the extant literature which includes empirical research on coaching, the majority is focused on outcome measures. Unsurprisingly, organizations focus their evaluation of

81 value for money in coaching on what returns might be available to them. There are a

number of examples of such outcome research.

In 2002, Kampa-Kokesch undertook a study using the multi-factor leadership questionnaire (MLQ) to assess the impact of coaching on leadership behaviour. The results suggested that coaching had an impact on leadership behaviour with increased ratings on charismatic behaviour, impact on followers and inspiration action. Other studies have either attempted to demonstrate the impact of coaching quantitatively, or in qualitative terms. The study by Wang and Wentling (2001) found that training, supported by on-line coaching, enhanced skills transfer and also improved relationships, problem solving and enhanced motivation. A longitudinal study of over four hundred managers (Smither and London, 2003) found that executives who worked with a coach showed an improvement in performance in terms of direct report and supervisor ratings using a multi-rater feedback instrument. The research undertaken by Evers et al. (2006) involved a pre- and post-test measurement of individuals and used a control group drawing on a group of sixty managers in a public service organization split between the control and experimental conditions. Participants in the control group benefited from a behavioural coaching intervention based on the co-coaching model (Whitworth et al., 1998). The results found significant difference between the two groups and in favour of coaching on two of six variables measured; outcome expectations with respect to acting in a balanced way and self-efficacy beliefs with respect to setting one’s own goals. The authors concluded that coaching had a positive effect, but noted that the self-report nature of the study limited the conclusions which could be drawn from the results.

Some studies have focused specifically on the attributes that executive coaches have which contribute to outcomes. Hall et al. (1999) describe a study that consisted of interviews with seventy-five executives who had received coaching. The result of the

82 study was a list of coaching behaviours which coachees found helpful and less helpful, and a comparison with executive coaches’ perceptions of coaching behaviours. Aspects such as listening and questioning skills are present, alongside integrity, caring and the ability to challenge constructively. A 2004 study (Gonzales, 2004) reviewed coachees’ perceptions of what contributed towards the coaching process. Twelve coachees (6 male, 6 female) who had received coaching using a collaborative coaching style were

interviewed through a semi-structured interview methodology and the data was analysed using thematic analysis to reduce and cluster the data. The findings highlighted that, for positive progress to be made, the coach needed to command respect, work

collaboratively, use a discursive rather than instructional approach and act authentically. The research identified the need for a combination of action and reflection using gentle probing for transformation learning to occur.

Some research in Executive Coaching has begun to identify common coach behaviours, which may be most beneficial: these include using a collaborative approach with the coachee (Gonzales, 2004; Luebbe, 2005; Jones and Spooner, 2006), an organizational culture which is open about the reasons for coaching and offers wider support to the coachee (Bush, 2005; Luebbe, 2005), being authentic or congruent in the work with the coachee (Gonzales, 2004) and being seen by the coachee as experienced or credible (Bush, 2005; Jones and Spooner, 2006). In the UK the EMCC, using the Delphi technique of an expert panel, has developed a set of coaching competencies which are believed to contribute to positive outcomes (Willis, 2005).

There are many sources which qualitatively connect coaching with improved performance and leadership potential. Goleman (2004) found direct ties between emotional intelligence, which may be developed by coaching, and measurable business results. A study carried out by Wales (2003) created the ‘Inner and Outer Model of

83 Development’ that describes how the internally perceived competencies of self-awareness and confidence enable and stimulate five externally manifested competencies, such as management and assertiveness, and how coaching substantially increases the

effectiveness of these links. Whilst these may be important additional attributes resulting from the coaching intervention they lie outside the scope of this study.

An area for future study suggested by Passmore and Gibbes (2007) is on the behaviours that executive coaches use. At the root of this is the desire to begin to understand what behaviours make a difference in coaching. The experiences from counselling suggest that it is a complex and difficult question and it might be hypothesized that similar

conclusions could be drawn for coaching. Also it may be hypothesized that more experienced coaches intuitively discover what works over time and unconsciously incorporate this into their behaviour (Roth and Fonagy, 2005). A number of links have been made between other learning techniques and coaching so as to enhance coaching outcomes by underpinning the technique with supplementary theoretical rigour. An example of this is provided by Fisher Turesky and Gallagher (2011) who suggest that the use of Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory can enhance the coach’s understanding of self through their own learning style, making them more aware of the learning style of their clients, and thus enabling more fruitful coaching outcomes.

There are a number of links between and comparison of coaching with other therapeutic techniques and management interventions. Peltier’s (2001) book on the psychology of Executive Coaching was an early work clearly connecting coaching with a general psychological approach, and Greene and Grant (2003) integrate psychology theory into an accessible introduction to coaching for managers. A study of coaching from a psycho- dynamic perspective has been undertaken by Kilburg (2000). There is little formal theoretical or empirical work to date to connect Executive Coaching and positive

84 psychology. This was highlighted by Kauffman and Scoular (2004) in a preliminary

survey of the field. Since then some considerable research has been conducted and, as noted by Linley et al. (2009), Executive Coaching and positive psychology share a common heritage, being grounded in an abundance-based, solution-focused paradigm, driven typically by the assumption that people generally want to grow and develop their potential and when their environment supports them in doing so, they thrive (Linley and Harrington, 2005).