Programme type definition and data selection

Perhaps the most important but also the most problematic prerequisite for data collection is the formulation of unambiguous definitions for the research cases, that is, the two programme types selected in the research. The key issue here is how to define what counts as a children’s or religious programme. Unfortunately, there is no straightforward solution to this matter, as demarcation lines between programme types can be vaguely defined, and programmes often cross boundaries of different programme classes, even though identifiability was one of the factors considered when selecting the cases for this study. To make matters even more complicated, the most popular programmes with children have always been those intended for a general audience (Buckingham et al. 1999: 79).

Programme selection criteria were slightly different for the two minority programme types selected for the study because of the differences between the programme types. Children’s programmes for this study were selected using a narrow definition of children’s programmes: only programmes specifically targeted for child and pre-teen audiences of roughly ages 0-12 were selected.¹³ Feature films (including animated films), programmes for family viewing and general entertainment programmes¹⁴ were thus excluded from this study, even though a majority of their viewers may be children. In addition, programmes for schools and colleges broadcast in separate daytime ‘programmes for schools’ blocks were excluded, as previous studies on children’s programming (e.g. Messenger Davies and Corbett 1997; Lehtinen 2010) have classified these programmes as education programmes.

As religious programmes do not constitute a homogenous group sharing a common attribute (such as the age of the audience), their definition is somewhat complicated.

Religious programmes also come in different formats and are produced outside religious departments too. Therefore, this study adopts a relatively eclectic definition of religious programmes: a programme is considered to belong to the religion category if its central theme is religion. This definition accommodates confessional programmes (Sunday services, prayers etc.) as well as religious music, talk shows and documentaries on religious matters. More specifically, the Central Religious Advisory Committee’s (CRAC) guidelines from 1996 provide a more articulated definition for religious programmes that can be applied to this study too:

13 As Buckingham et al. (1999) note, drawing a border between childhood and adolescence is difficult particularly in a study that spans over a relatively lengthy period of time, as the nature of childhood is changing. Series such as Thunderbirds and Batman have evolved from family entertainment (in the 1960s) to children’s – or cult/kitch – television. This study draws a nominal line between the childhood and teenage so that programmes targeted mainly for audiences over 12-13 years of age are classified as “teen” programmes, and thus are excluded from this study. Examples of such programming blocks include Channel 4’s T4 for older teens and young adults. Channel 5’s Shake!-block (under various names in 2000-2007 and since 2009) contains programmes targeted for pre-teens (e.g. Hannah Montana, The Tribe), which were included in this study.

14 Such as chart (e.g. Top of the Pops, The O-Zone) and variety shows.

- presents conventional religious belief and practice, worship and ceremonial, the reality and significance of being a believer;

- reflects, scrutinises, proclaims or challenges aspects of the world of faith and the impact of faith (and non-faith) on the world;

- keeps the audience in touch with issues which shape the world of belief and which are shaped by the world of belief;

- addresses itself to questions and concerns which religions (but not necessarily religions alone) address, and affirms values which religions also affirm;

- deals with a view of life not enclosable by the visible world;

- acknowledges the spiritual dimension in human experience; and

- does not fail to bring a religious perspective to bear on its subject matter, be it (for example) social justice, ethics, suffering or celebration.

(CRAC (1996): "Religion in Religious Broadcasting: Report of the CRAC Working Party", cited in Viney 1999: 21) In addition to these genre-specific general guidelines, a set of five criteria developed by Suoninen (2007b: 11-3) for her survey of children’s output in Finland were used in programme categorisation:

1.) Programme details published in television listings. These listings often contain some sorts of information about programme types and target audiences. The programme name itself is often a good indicator of the content.

2.) Transmission time and slot. Children’s programmes in particular have been traditionally broadcast in separate programme blocks. Programmes broadcast late at night are not considered children’s programmes in this study, even if their format and content would suggest so.

3.) Categorisation of a programme in previous studies. The study by Suoninen aims to match the programme selection criteria of the other annual reports on Finnish television output published by the Ministry of Transport and Communications. In addition to these, reports by Blumler (1992c), Messenger Davies and Corbett (1997), Buckingham et al. (1999) and Ofcom (2007), among others, were used for this study.

4.) Composition of the audiences of a programme. This criterion applies mainly for children’s programmes, as audiences for religious programmes do not consist solely of viewers of certain ages. While certain programmes (e.g. action cartoons) are not necessarily formally categorised as children’s programmes in

schedules, they are clearly targeted at a child audience, and the vast majority of their viewers are children. Such programmes are thus included in this study.

Nevertheless, animated sitcoms such as The Simpsons and King of the Hill, which have high proportion of child viewers, are excluded from this study, as their themes are mainly targeted for adult viewers.

5.) Programme content. Although a programme may not be exclusively targeted for a specific minority interest group, its content may indicate that the programme should be classified as a minority interest programme. Examples of programmes meeting this criterion include certain documentaries on religious matters, which are not produced by a religious department, but whose content clearly meet the criteria of a religious programme.

Of course, this selection system is not without weaknesses. With the historical boundary between factual programming and entertainment eroding, and the fusion of different genres and formats into new ones that cannot be pigeonholed using the categorisation systems created in the past, unequivocal and precise categorisation is impossible. Previous studies conducted by different authors contain different criteria for categorising these programmes and thus provide essentially different results that are not comparable.¹⁵ Ultimately, the effect of subjective judgement of the researcher is impossible to eliminate and must be acknowledged. This said, in both countries matching criteria for programme selection were used so that results between the research cases would be comparable.

15 For instance, the study by Messenger Davies and Corbett (1997) excluded programmes like Channel 4’s Sesame Street, as these were classified under education subgenre. Likewise, the study by Suoninen (2007) uses a narrower categorisation for children’s programmes than the annual reports on television programming by the Finnish Ministry of Transport and Communications, in which programmes like Buusteri, which, judged by its themes, was clearly targeted to teen audiences, are included in the category of children’s programmes.