Figure 6.1. Adapted from Janatti et al., 2013, a proposed hypothetical
processing stream thought to occur during the fixed-feature variant of the additional singleton search task. Listed below each stage is the ERP component associated with that level of processing.
Adapted from Figure 7 in Jannati et al. (2013), Figure 6.1 illustrates an updated proposal for a hypothetical attentional processing stream during visual search. At the pre-attentive stage, the visual system first processes an entire scene in mass parallel, encoding all objects on a topographical salience map proportional to their sensory inputs.
These sensory inputs can over time be altered by cognitive inputs that reflect dimensional weighting, training, selection history, etc... Next, at the attentive stage, the saliency map is scanned and the objects that elicit the greatest activations generate “attend-to-me”
signals and are selected. Over time, attention has built up a top-down module/heuristic that contains a functional template of what the target and the distractor are. The location of singleton that matches the target template is selected for enhanced processing while the location of the singleton that matches the distractor template is selected for suppression. Only information located at the enhanced location can be subsequently identified and consolidated in memory.
The proposed model relies on several theoretical assumptions on how attention may work during a competitive visual search task. First, the model necessitates that individuals be able to simultaneously select more than one spatial location at a given moment. Evidence for the parallel allocation of attention to multiple spatial locations come
from a series of recent papers by Grubert and Eimer (2015; 2016), who report that—when an observer is instructed to report multiple feature-specific targets—the attentional set can be flexibly configured to select the items in parallel. Since the top-down attentional templates necessary for visual search are assumed to be stored in visual working memory, the upper limit of the number of objects that can be selected in parallel would likely correspond to an individual’s working memory capacity. This notion is consistent with the finding reported in Chapter 3, where the group of individuals with lowest vWM scores (ranging from 1.60 to 2.13), failed to elicit the PD—that is, they failed to maintain a template for two items (the target and the distractor).
Figure 6.2. Hypothetical resolving of a visual search task based on the input image shown. The stars (top) represent the stimuli’s activation on the saliency map, with increased brightness denoting greater salience. The saliency map is then scanned by attention and suppression/enhancement are applied contingent on top-down attentional templates.
Another assumption of this proposed model is that top-down control is applied both at pre-attentive and attentive stages of processing, albeit in functionally distinct ways. At a pre-attentive stage, top-down control can act to increase or decrease the sensitivity for sensory processing based on low-level features (e.g., colours, orientations, intensities).
This form of top-down control would serve to up-weight and down-weight the feature dimensions of behaviourally relevant and irrelevant objects, altering their representation on the salience map. This is consistent with several other models of selection which propose top-down control to have an impact prior to the construction of a master saliency map (Aziz & Mertsching, 2008; Found & Müller, 1996; Hu, Xie, Ma, Chia & Rajan, 2004;
Itti & Koch, 2001). This form of top-down control would be more reflexive, more easily reset, and more sensitive to aspects such as selection history. In contrast, top-down control at the attentive stage would reflect a more specialized process that would serve to determine the flow processing instructions. This form of top-down modulation would more closely resemble a Labergian module of attentional control (LaBerge, 2002). Here, this control module requires iterative feedback to instantiate the higher-order attentional instruction, be it to enhance or suppress processing. After a number of trials, the task becomes routine, the instructions are consolidated and the attention module activated.
Although a distinction between forms of top-down attentional control is consistent with some limited empirical findings (e.g., Ganis & Kosslyn, 2007), future research will be necessary to establish the scope and the influence for such mechanisms to bias attentional selection.
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