Psychological Continuum Model (PCM)

As discussed, the PCM framework was borne out of a combination of theories and models, and attempted to overcome shortcomings evident in the earlier models,

52 and provide a more holistic conception of psychological involvement and loyalty to a brand. Initially, the PCM was developed to assess the general parameters which mediate the relationship between an individual and a sport or athlete (Funk and James, 2001). Since its initial inception, the PCM framework has been applied to a number of leisure and sport settings (e.g. Gursoy & Gavcar 2003;

Havitz & Dimache 1997), including marathon running (Beaton et al. 2011);

celebrity fan involvement & destination perceptions (Lee et al. 2008); sport competitors and touristic activities (Dimanche et al. 1993); golf (Funk et al.

2011); competitive rugby league players and recreational skiers (Beaton et al.

2009); and most recently in a tourism context examining the destination involvement of sport tourists (Filo et al. 2011). So, while the PCM has been used to assess individuals’ involvement with sporting and destination brands, it is yet to be applied to the hotel industry, and as such this study is the first of its kind.

Although the model has not been tested in this context before, it has previously been noted that “the PCM framework enables the creation of middle-range theories applicable for understanding conceptually distinct behaviours in sport, recreation, tourism and leisure” (Funk 2008: 43). The success of its use in assessing individual psychological commitment to sporting brands (teams), as well as its success in a range of other tourism settings, makes it appropriate for replication in this thesis to hotel brands.

The PCM framework investigates an individual’s involvement with a specific brand in relation to four sequential stages: Awareness (I know of this brand), Attraction (I like this brand), Attachment (I am this brand) or Allegiance (I live for this brand). Each stage represents an increased level of psychological connection (i.e. brand involvement) that a consumer may have with a brand (Funk

& James, 2001; Beaton & Funk, 2008). The psychological connection at each stage is represented by distinct attitudinal and behavioural outcomes (Filo et al.

2011). In order, the lowest level, brand awareness, describes an individual knowing about a brand without having any special interest or inclination to purchase it. Brand awareness may be influenced not only by various socialising agents (e.g. media, social media and marketing), but also by cultural influences and other situational factors. The second stage, brand attraction, is a result of the

53 product offering an opportunity to fulfil needs or for an individual to receive benefits from its use or consumption based on hedonic or socio-situational contexts, self-efficacy or personal determinants such as age, gender, race or socio-economic status (Funk et al. 2011). Brand attitude formations and associations represent an explicitly formed connection at this stage, as well as purchase intentions and may include the actual purchase. The third level, brand attachment, represents a consumer who has formed a meaningful psychological connection with the brand (Filo et al. 2011), and is seen to be more complex and stable than that witnessed at the brand attraction stage (Beaton et al. 2011). At this stage, individuals begin to ascribe functional, emotional and symbolic value to a brand, and consumers exhibiting brand attachment have stronger attitudes about a brand and are less likely to change their preferences (Filo et al. 2011). The final stage, brand allegiance, represents a continuous and enduring relationship with a brand.

Brand allegiance is one which develops over time and occurs when a consumer believes the brand is congruent with their own values and self-concept.

Importantly, this stage is characterised by consumers who display strong positive attitudes toward a brand which influences cognitive processing and is followed by consistent and predictable behavioural intentions (Funk & James 2001). Figure 7 below presents the stages of brand involvement in the PCM framework.

54 As mentioned above, one of the central tenets of the PCM framework is the concept of involvement. Involvement is used to describe the importance an individual places on a broad range of objects including products/services and brands (Kim & Kim 2005). Involvement has also been linked to consumer values (e.g. Lastovicka & Gardner 1978; Li 1997), hence the importance of their inclusion in this model. It is essential that an accurate understanding of the focus of consumer involvement is developed in order to develop meaningful marketing strategies (Filo et al., 2011). Nelson (2005) notes that in the leisure tourism context, place is both a setting for consumption as well as a consumable product of and in itself, and indeed the same can be said for hotels, particularly in the luxury sector. In this era of increasing globalisation and hence competition, it is crucial for marketers to explore consumer involvement with their brand, in order to attract customers who are now more flexible and spontaneous than ever (Vanhove 2001). The obvious implication of these developments is that consumer involvement becomes elusive, and as such its full understanding is crucial.

STRONG

Behavioural Engagement With a Brand Awareness

Figure 7 - Stages of attitudinal and behavioural engagement in the PCM framework (adapted from Funk et al. 2011)

55 The involvement construct in the PCM framework is used to stage respondents based on the assertion that it can be used to characterise the stage of an individual’s psychological connection to an object or brand (Funk & James 2001).

An involvement measure involving a tri-dimensional construct including the dimensions of pleasure, centrality and sign which has been adopted from empirically tested studies to develop an effective staging tool to place individuals onto one of the four PCM stages (Beaton et al. 2009; Beaton et al. 2011; Funk et al. 2011). Whilst this procedure has been applied in a tourism destination context, to date it has not been tested in a hospitality setting.

In the present study, brand involvement is conceptualised using the same three dimensions outlined above, allowing for the application of the three-step staging procedure (see discussion in section 7.8) in a hotel context. By using this approach, respondents will be differentiated according to their distinct profiles based on each of the three hotel brand involvement facets (pleasure, centrality and sign). First, pleasure, characterises the enjoyment derived from purchasing a branded product or service. Second, centrality, reflects how central purchasing or experiencing a particular brand is to an individual’s lifestyle. And third, sign, embodies the self-expression value, or symbolism derived from purchasing or experience a given brand. Each of these dimensions are rooted in the leisure involvement literature (e.g. Kyle & Mowen 2005; McIntyre 1989; Beaton et al.

2011) and have all been successfully empirically tested in the leisure context.

However this is the first study to test these items in a hospitality setting, and as such their empirical suitability cannot be guaranteed at the outset. Nevertheless, it is believed that given the hedonic nature of the first and third dimensions (pleasure and sign) in particular, and the synergies these have with luxury interpretations that these same dimensions will be appropriate to this study. More specifically, the PCM framework provides better understanding for how different phases of learning are operative and how this influences the strength of psychological connection to a given brand (Funk & James 2001).

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2.7 S

The literature to date provides a somewhat fragmented, and often highly contextualised conception of the luxury concept. Luxury as a concept is one which has previously been studied predominantly within the broader marketing field, particularly in relation to fashion and other consumable items. However, little work has been done on luxury experiences, although trends indicate the value and desire for them to be ever increasing (Boston Consulting Group Ltd 2012), and it is experiences such as luxury travel and hotels that will play an important role in defining individuals’ identities into the future. Through the various manifestations of luxury interpretations presented here, it can be concluded that the interpretation of what does and doesn’t constitute luxury is entirely subjective and dependent upon a range of endogenous personal factors, and exogenous societal and situational factors. Chapter 4 will provide a discussion on how values act as influencing factors on individuals’ decision-making processes and the role that values play in guiding the aforementioned endogenous and exogenous factors of brand loyalty. Furthermore, a hypothesis will be offered on how they might influence the individual operationalisation brand loyal behaviour. The next chapter will provide a discussion of sustainability and ethical consumption and demonstrate how the two concepts are not as far removed as is commonly thought.

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3 ^S USTAINABILITY , E THICAL C ONSUMPTION