Qualitative Data Analysis

The process of data analysis is clearly an important issue in the overall process of theory generation and assistance with emergent theories. Formal approaches to data analysis and theory generation can be found in most texts on fieldwork methods, however, detailed accounts of methodological approaches to data analysis are sparse. Sieber (1976) in his review of field methods which included : Glaser and Strauss (1967); Filstead (1970); Glaser (1972); Runkel and McGrath (1972); Schatzman and Straus (1973); Bogdan and Taylor (1975) and Smith (1975), identified that only 5 to 10 per cent of book space was devoted to analysis. He concluded that "methodologists obviously prefer to spend more time on such matters as gaining access, interviewing, choosing informants, handling reciprocites, and so on, rather than on the intellectual work of analysis" Sieber (1976 pi). From the analysis Sieber did generate a list consisting of a general approach to the data analysis problem, this included: the intertwining of analysis and data collection;

formulating classes of phenomena: identifying themes: and the provisional testing of hypotheses.

One of the texts reviewed by Sieber, T he Discovery of Grounded Theory1 (Glaser and Strauss 1967), is probably the most cited and most used of the theory generation techniques. Turner (1983), for example gives practical examples of its use in hospitals, manufacturing and local government. Turner makes the point that grounded theory generation is not a new technique, and cites the early work of Malinowski (1944) and Whyte (1943) where similar data analysis techniques were used.

Grounded theory, as termed by Glaser and Strauss (1967) and developed by Turner (1981, 1983) and Miles (1979), in its basic form is a technique to assist in the problem of analysing and interpreting large amounts of data. Miles (1979 p591) relates it to "being open to what the site has to tell us, and slowly evolving a coherent framework rather than imposing one from the start". This is achieved by arranging the perceived important

aspects of the source data in a format which can be seen and therefore manipulated to identify links, themes and categories. There are other similar approaches to grounded theory analysis, for example, Sackmann (1991) used 'theoretical content analysis' in her research into cultural knowledge in organisations. Sackmann describes the technique, which was developed by Carney (1979), as focusing on the isolation and examination of equivalent themes and their patterns. There are variations of grounded theory, the key issue is that in any type of research which generates large amounts of data a system is required to move from data to a coherent theory.

The concepts and patterns derived from the initial stages of grounded theoretical analysis underpin further theoretical development. At each stage of the development process, an understanding of the research setting can be tested by referring back to the research subjects for confirmation and validation. This validation process is vital in the

understanding of the research site, and ensuring that emerging theory is developed from reliable data.

In view of the mass of data collected through observation and interview, the concept of grounded theory generation was used as part of the detective work looking for clues, patterns and links. In order to facilitate theoretical development I arranged my collected data into three easy access filing systems. The main filing system was in geographical /depot order which contained fieldwork notes from observations and interviews and any other relevant information about the depot and location. The second filing system was a precis of the depot notes written onto a cards (playing card size) which were used as a visual aid to theory generation. Further cards were introduced into the pack as patterns and linkages emerged, for example those relating to history, work patterns and trade union links. The third filing system was generated from theoretical development and was in subject links order, for example, leadership, values, symbols and rituals.

The grounded theoretical analysis of the data using the card systems, referring back to the main notes and validating with participants and non-participants produced patterns and linkages which fitted into three culture types: the counter culture; the positive culture and the changing culture (see Figure 3.6). The next stage of theory development was

linkages between the three subcultures and the Bass ‘corporate1 culture as perceived by the Bass board. Using the card system this produced evidence of a top down approach to culture and management of change which failed to reach the lower levels in the

organisation. Once again these findings were backed up by further interviews with senior managers within the organisation.

00 00 VO ■C\ U Ci u CQ u 3 3 o £ 3 CZ1 3 .O 3 <Z> CZ5 a C0 J < P 65 a C U L T U R E A N D P ERF OR MAN CE

Bass North Depots (reference to Figure 3.6) 1 Abergele 9 Huyton 2 Barrow 10 Leyland 3 Bury 11 Portmadoc 4 Colne 12 Scarborough 5 Eaglescliffe 13 Sheffield 6 Grimsby 14 Sleaford 7 Hebbum 15 Tadcaster 8 Hull

Figure 3.6 is a simplistic three stage model which was used to reduce the data and develop the theory of culture management in the Bass organisation. This was used in conjunction with the framework developed in Chapter 2, Figure 2.2. 'A generic frame work for studying cultures and subcultures'.

The data generation process can be summarised as:-

* Stage 1 - the generation of subculture types from the 15 depot analysis;

* Stage 2 - the generation of linkages between the 3 sub-culture types and the beliefs and values of the Bass leadership.

* Stage 3 - the generation of linkages between the Distribution sub-cultures, the Bass 'corporate' culture and overall performance.

At arriving at the three subculture types through grounded theoretical analysis, cross site analysis and validation, was carried out. Several workplace and managerial links and patterns were identified at this stage which are documented in Chapter 4.

As a precis the depots were categorised as:-

1. Liverpool Subculture 'A 1

2. Tadcaster Counterculture

3. Newcastle (values conflict with the values of

4. Sheffield the dominant culture)

5. Abergele Subculture fBf

6. Barrow Enhancing Culture

7. Portmadoc (values are in line with the values of

8. Scarborough the dominant culture)

9. Sleaford 10. Eaglescliffe

11. Colne Subculture 'C '

12. Leyland Changing Culture

13. Hull 'C' subcultures are historically

14. Grimsby 'A' types moving towards ’B* types.

15. Bury

3.4 Access

Access to carry out fieldwork to a great extent is dependant upon the objectives of the research and the mode of study to be used to satisfy both the fieldworker and the

sponsoring establishment's requirements. For example, a manager carrying out research in his own organisation, overtly and in the participant as observer mode of study, will have little difficulty gaining access as long as he is satisfying the requirements of the organisation. In this mode of study both researcher and informant are aware of their role and relationship. However, problems may arise if, as is often the case, the research approach and initial objectives change as theoretical development proceeds. In this situation the sponsoring establishment and the researcher's objectives may be out of synchronisation and access becomes difficult. This particular situation arose in my fieldwork in the Distribution depot studies and was overcome to a great extent by moving from overt to covert participant observation. In this mode of study the researcher may become a complete observer with little or no contact with the observed. Although this move solved my research problems it created problems with the sponsor who had

preconceived ideas of the study outcome. The issue of observation modes and associated ethical issues are discussed further in the following sections and in the main body of the thesis.

One of the most important issues regarding access is the development of "a web of influential contacts" (Delany 1960, p457). In terms of influential contacts, this should refer to all levels within the research area. For example, it is equally important to develop a friendship with the Shop Steward as it is with the Distribution Director if successful entry is to be achieved.

Formal permission to carry out the research was gained through approval from the Distribution, Personnel, and Information Technology Directors which at the time posed no problem. However, access became more difficult as the research developed, for

example, because of the sensitivity of planned changes, it became difficult to get approval for overt observations at Trade Union and Management meetings and for general

observations. Additionally, as my theories of Distribution life and a view of the Bass corporate culture developed, in many aspects they conflicted with the beliefs of Distribution Director, who was the main sponsor of the research. The Distribution Director’s view being from a variable perspective in that he believed that the depot cultures could be manipulated and in some instances completely, and quickly changed to satisfy business objectives.

Conflicting views with the main research sponsor is clearly a major problem in terms of access and one which is difficult to manage. In many ways my role as Management Services Manager, which allows me access into any function in Bass and to ask questions, enabled me to get around any access problems.

It was for this reason and because of possible sources of opposition, that covert observations were made at meetings and during Management Services projects.

Approval was given for the second stage of the PhD research into the three different subcultures at Liverpool, Bury and Abergele, although, because of sensitivity both overt and covert observations were necessary in order to understand the behaviour patterns of the group members.

An additional problem regarding access was in relation to staff turnover. For example, of the original 21 Distribution Management team at the start of the research, only 5 (24%) were still in the same position at the latter stages of the research. This included the main sponsor of the research, the Distribution Director leaving the company. With such a high turnover access had to be renegotiated and research terms agreed with the relevant

Director and Distribution Manager.