Qualitative Data Collection and Analysis

The qualitative approach was conducted first. As quantitative approach alone cannot specify the complexity of the phenomena, a qualitative research method supports the quantitative data in this analysis to identify themes in the adoption of e-commerce in the Saudi tourism industry (Neuman 2005, Stephens 2009). A qualitative approach is expected to provide in-depth information regarding the interviewees’ experiences with technology in their firms, and their views on its usefulness in marketing their services.

4.3.1.Qualitative Data Instrument

The relevant data collection instruments for qualitative research can consist of participant observation, interviews, focus groups, or language-based approaches such as discourse analysis and conversation analysis (Bryman 2012). The selection of an appropriate instrument is important to gather data that most closely fits the research problem (Vanderstoep & Johnston 2008). The instrument used in this study was a semi- structured interview format comprising themes and questions based on the research model. An interview is a social research method with the primary aim of describing and understanding perceptions, interpretations, and beliefs of a selected sample from the target population (Carey 2012). Carey has listed the benefits of interviews, such as allowing in-depth discussions with the study participants, time-efficient in collecting data, and one-on-one interviews to gather pertinent data. Interviews must be structured in a manner that the interviewee answers the interviewer’s question without embellishment. While an unstructured interview simply presents the research problem to the interviewee, without control of the direction of the response, a structured interview is too rigid. This research uses semi-structured interviews with open-ended questions in a flexible manner (Flick 2009). Semi-structured interviews allow the interviewer to follow interesting and unexpected points raised by interviewees that can be pursued to gather further information. Interviewing can cease when the data are saturated and no new information or themes are being generated (Flick 2009).

91 The interviews were conducted in Arabic and commenced with a brief explanation of the purpose of the research, the expected duration and the elements of the interview. An amicable atmosphere was established during the conversation prior to the interview. Notes were also taken during the interview to provide information and context for interpreting the interview transcripts during the analysis. Each page used for note taking was labelled (with codes reflecting company name and that of the participant; date, and time) (Creswell & Plano-Clark 2010).

The questions to be asked of each participant included organisational services and activities, participant’s demographics, including approximate age, qualifications and years in the Saudi industry. The interview questions were based on themes about adoption of e-commerce, whether the organisation was prepared to adopt Internet trading, and opportunities and issues that the interviewee envisaged regarding e- commerce for Saudi Arabia. The full text of the questions is shown in Appendix 2. Once the interview was completed, the researcher asked whether there was anything the interviewee wished to add, the participant was thanked, and the interview was concluded. Each interview was stored electronically in a separate folder and filed with the researcher’s University for safekeeping.

4.3.2.Qualitative Data Collection

In choosing the respondents for a study, sampling decisions may pick groups to be compared, or they may focus on individuals within a group (Creswell 2009). The study sample for this research was decided in advance as executives in top management in Saudi tourism firms who were responsible for technology policy in their company and interaction with the industry and customers. Flick (2009) states that probability-based sampling such as random sampling or stratification is useful where there is a differentiation between variables and testing assumptions. In mixed methods research, purposive sampling is usually selected for the qualitative data collection and probability- based sampling for the quantitative data collection (Mertens 2013). The study sample for the qualitative data collection was a purposive sample, since only management and owners from the Saudi tourism sector were in a position to provide the information on their firms’ adoption of e-commerce (cf. Creswell & Clark 2010). The group of executives and owners selected through purposive sampling to reflect the knowledge, experience and attitudes toward e-commerce from the tourism industry in Saudi Arabia.

92 As noted in Chapters 2 and 3, the majority of technology adoption studies focus on individual user attitude and there is less research on organisational and collective societal attitudes. As organisational attitude to e-commerce is the focus of this study, the data in this study was obtained from managers of the tourism organisations who reported on their firm’s technology experiences. The selection of the firm’s higher executives, owners, or directors as participants in this study was based on the following criteria. Executives have the vision for their organisations’ future, so that they take a long-term view of issues like technology adoption. In this case, they are in a position to inform the study of the organisation’s characteristics and dimensions, the relevant factors leading to the e-commerce decision, the current situation, and future expectations. There is little e- commerce utilisation in the Saudi tourism industry, so that staff would not be expected to be knowledgeable of the factors under study.

The interviews took place in Jeddah, which is the tourism and commercial centre for Saudi Arabia, given that the city is the gateway to Makkah and Madinah where pilgrims go for the Hajj and Umrah. To select firms for participants, 20 organisations

were selected from the Saudi Chamber of Commerce and Industry’s inclusive database for Jeddah. These firms were approached by telephone or email, and eligibility criteria explained. The participant firms were trading in accommodation, air travel, events and attractions as well as Hajj and Umrah tourism. Because of time constraints, the most

senior person available was interviewed. Of the 20 firms, 11 agreed to provide participants for the study.

Once identified, potential study participants received letters explaining the study (Appendix 3 and Appendix 4 for the Arabic version: The Plain, suggested appointment times and dates, and individual consent forms for signature, as in Appendix 5, and Appendix 6 for the Arabic version. The interviews were conducted at each firm’s premises in July and August, 2010. The day before the interview, the researcher checked the availability of the participant and time was allowed before the actual interview for preparation. On arrival, consent forms including privacy constraints were confirmed and signed by the interviewee. The participants were each advised that they could withdraw from the interviews at any time. There were no identified risks to participants and all references to the interviewees were rendered anonymous. Permission to record the interview was obtained in each instance so that all interviews were audio-taped,

93 including voice recognition for the digital recorder, and interviews were on average 80 minutes in length.

4.3.3.Qualitative Data Analysis

The interpretation of the collected data plays an important role in the analysis as the collection of data (Kvale & Brinkmann 2009). Interpretation is not merely a simple reading of the text but a process of actively creating meaningful ideas and concepts from the text (Creswell 2009). This study used a reiterative analytical technique of taking the literature review and applying it to the data collected through a ‘hermeneutical’ analysis. Originating from German philosophical tradition, the hermeneutical approach was developed by Dilthey to express the manner by which meaning is constituted in human speech and actions (Rickman 1979). Hermeneutics is a means of textual interpretation or finding meaning in the written word through a process of ‘structuring of the manifest of what is said to deeper and more critical interpretation of the text’ (Kvale & Brinkmann 2009, p.207). As an art and science of interpreting meanings, hermeneutics also emphasises the socio-cultural and historic influences on the way in which a certain phenomenon is perceived or interpreted. Walsham (1993) suggests that ‘hermeneutics can be thought of as a key strand of phenomenology since the interpretation of texts is an important part of search of meaning and the essence of experience’ (p.9). The hermeneutic cycle of analysing data is presented below in Figure 4.5. Text is interpreted based on iterations of research’s own experience and existing literature and research. These interpretations are used to make judgments about text, creating further reiterations and interpretations of that text until conclusions or theorising suggests further reinterpretation.

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Source: adapted from Thanasankit, T, 1999

Figure 4.5: Hermeneutics Cycle

The interviews recorded on the audiotapes were transcribed and translated. Informed by Creswell (2009), Flick (2009) and Silverman (2011) steps were taken to ensure reliability of the analysis included confirmation of the accuracy of the translation and transcripts, and recheck of the transcripts against the categories to ensure that they were free from shift or drift in definition. Furthermore, negative or odd findings that were inconsistent with the majority view were included to ensure completeness and lack of bias (Creswell 2009). The critical remarks were then used to generate a revised research model before conducting the quantitative research and its data analysis as described later in Chapter 6.

The feedback from the respondents was arranged and coded for common themes to facilitate analysis and comparison with the literature. The process of data preparation and coding are described with details later in Chapter 5. Content analysis of transcribed and other textual data, according to Flick (2009), describes a systematic searching for words and concepts that match a coding structure (categories) established from the research problem or research questions. The transcribed data are subjected to further iterations until no more meaning can be derived from the texts. Categories are then searched for themes that may be used to show trends or conclusions from the categorisations (Creswell 2009). These processes result in findings and conclusions that address the research problem or answer the research questions.

It is important to establish the reliability and validity of data collected in any qualitative research (Creswell 2009). Silverman (2011) advocated standardising the

95 interview questions and answers to provide categories and themes, then, listening to the original audio recordings again to ensure that the interviewee’s comments are correctly categorised. In this research, Silverman’s point is especially important due to the necessity of conducting the interviews in Arabic and translating them for the English transcriptions. Validity in qualitative analysis, according to Silverman, concerns the impact of the researcher on the setting, and the truth of the interviewee’s account. Silverman notes that triangulation of these points with quantitative data assists in validating qualitative results.

Many steps were taken to ensure reliability of the collected data. First, the researcher checked transcripts to make sure that they did not contain any mistakes made during the transcription. Second, he checked the data to ensure that the meanings of the codes were free from shift or drift in definition. Third, a cross-checking of results was also made.

For the purpose of testing the validity of the data, the researcher used rich and detailed descriptions to convey the findings of the research. Rich and detailed description, providing cohesive and information about all facets of the collected data, make it more realistic and coherent (Creswell 2009). Also, the author spent extensive time in the field, studying the Hajj & Umrah industry and conducting field research for about three months in Jeddah city. Creswell (2009) stresses the importance of spending time in the field as it helps convey details about the site and people under research that lend credibility and accuracy to its findings. Furthermore, the author did not edit negative or odd findings that run counter to the theme under discussion and presented them without bias. Such different or contrarian perspectives to an issue can actually enhance the credibility of the research as honest acceptance and presentation of contradictory evidence lends realism to the research conducted (Creswell 2009).