QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS 5.6.

Qualitative research differs from quantitative research in that the data collected in qualitative research are primarily of textual in nature—that is, words as opposed to being numbers (Bryman, 2012; Cooper & Schindler, 2014). In addition, a qualitative study is typically inductive in nature (theory formulation) as opposed to being deductive (theory/hypothesis testing) in nature (Bryman, 2012). In the next section, the researcher describes how she collected and used nonnumeric (textual) information to develop a model (theory) to explain the organisational change management dynamics when Taguchi’s RPD approach is being integrated in a Lean manufacturing environment to improve design quality. The objective of this section is to examine key qualitative research methods available, in order to select the most appropriate method to meet the research objective—more specifically, objective # 3 (to identify and describe the drivers and restraints associated with attempting to integrate Taguchi’s RPD approach in a mature Lean organisation in apparel manufacturing).

Bryman (2012) identifies five main qualitative methods: Ethnography/participant observation, Qualitative interviewing, Focus groups, Language-based approaches, and Secondary analysis (collection and analysis of available textsand documents). Possible methods that could be used in the study are described in turn.

Ethnography/Participant Observation 5.6.1.

Ethnography is a “systematic study of people and culture” to explore “cultural phenomena” (Bryman, 2012; Yin, 2011). Creswell and Miller (2000) observe several

salient features in ethnography: observing groups of people in a natural setting, conducting interviews to clarify the ethnographer’s observations, immersing thoroughly in the social setting (to the point that the ethnographer becomes a learner), low or no knowledge about the phenomena being studied prior to engagement (observing the participants) in the social context, and long or prolonged involvement in data collection (e.g. making observations, verifying facts, and taking field notes); for these reasons, it is typical for an ethnographer to spend 4 to 12 months in the field to collect meaningful data (Creswell & Miller, 2000).

Ethnographic approaches are justified in organisational research if the aim of the researcher is to either understand the role of a certain organisation (e.g. role of a correction facility for juvenile delinquents), or to explain certain practices/behaviours (e.g. explaining why organisational members in a certain setting may resist a productivity improvement initiative), or to examine social interactions (Hammersley & Atkinson, 2007; Willis & Trondman, 2000).

Ethnographers adopt an open mind about the cultures of the subjective field; they beginning their investigation with a problem and a theory (or a model) to be addressed. Typically, an ethnographer would formulate certain initial questions as a guide to make observations, and thereby collect data (Willis & Trondman, 2000). Like in any other research design, access to data (in the target population of interest) is a critical success factor in ethnography. In certain settings the researcher may have an open access (free access) to the target population (e.g. a public event) while in other settings the access may be restricted (closed), in which case, the permission needs to be sought from the relevant authority to gain access to the target population (Brewer, 2000).

Richardson (2000) prescribes five criteria to evaluate ethnography33: substantive contribution, aesthetic merit, reflexivity, impact, and expression of a reality. According to Richardson, substantive contribution refers to the study being able to substantively contribute towards understanding the social phenomenon being studied; aesthetic merit refers to adaptation of “creative analytical practices” such as using aesthetically pleasing yet nontrivial constructions to narrate the responses; reflexivity refers to describing how well the ethnographer executed the process (e.g. the study being

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It is important to note that the term ethnography is used to refer to the method as well as the write-up (reporting of the study) (Bryman, 2012). In this instance, the researcher means the latter.

seemingly unbiased, addressing ethical issues and describing sufficiently how the information was gathered); impact refers to extent to which the study impacts the reader both intellectually and emotionally; finally, expression on reality refers to extent to which the study appears to be true/real, in the eyes and mind of the reader.

Although in the ideal world an ethnographic study should be free from observer biases, in the real-world it may be difficult for an ethnographic study to become so because by nature, ethnography requires the researcher to immerse himself/herself in the social setting being investigated (Bryman, 2012; Fetterman, 2010; Willis & Trondman, 2000). For this reason ethnographers often use triangulation approaches, contextualisation, and non-judgmental orientation to negate any negative influence that may result from ethnographic engagement with the participants (Fetterman, 2010). Divale (1976) asserts that the ethnographer’s familiarity with the values/culture of the participants (e.g. the ethnographer being able to communicate freely in the native language of the participants) does enhance the validity and reliability of data being collected. .

Unlike the other qualitative methods (details follow), ethnographic approach offers a distinct advantage to the researcher in achieving the objectives (more precisely objective 3) of the study. This is because both the researcher and the participants had very little (if any) prior knowledge on the drivers and restraints that govern organisational change towards integrating Taguchi’s RPD approach into the Lean culture. This is mainly because .the participants have had no experience on Taguchi’s RPD approach up until the researcher introduced this approach to the participants (the case study factory). Alternative qualitative methods such as qualitative interviews/surveys and focus groups do not suit the study because metaphorically speaking, there is nothing to interview or focus if the respondents have not been exposed to Taguchi’s RPD approach! In addition, organisational change is a cultural phenomenon which is best addressed by ethnography.

Qualitative Interviewing 5.6.2.

Qualitative unreviewing is a broad term that is used to refer to any form of interviewing that prompt the respondents to provide textual information (e.g. requesting a respondent to select one of the 5 options given by the researcher). Thus all forms of structured, unstructured and semi-structured interviews that result in the generation of textual

information (as opposed to numeric information) can be classified under qualitative interviewing (Bryman, 2012; Fontana & Frey, 2000). The ultimate objective of qualitative interviewing is to gather rich in-depth information on participant’s experience on a particular phenomenon or on participant’s knowledge on a particular topic (Myers & Newman, 2007; Turner, 2010). Turner observes that a well-designed interview protocol—a set of high-level questions that the researcher needs to address in conducing the interview— is one of the most important quality requirements in qualitative interviewing. Bryman (2012) observes that qualitative interviewing can be part of an ethnographic research process.

Focus Groups 5.6.3.

Focus group approach involves interviewing more than one person simultaneously, in a group setting under the direction of a moderator/facilitator (Bryman, 2012; Gaskell, 2000).34 In a broad sense, focus group method can be considered when information cannot be gathered very efficiently from other qualitative methods (Bryman, 2012; Gaskell, 2000).

Secondary Analysis of Textual Data 5.6.4.

Textual data/information relevant to a study can sometimes originate from secondary sources (Bryman, 2012). For example, a researcher can gain a reasonable understanding about the culture of an organisation by analysing the text used in official communication (e.g. letters, memos). Such textual information can often be used as additional data to triangulate the findings generated from primary qualitative data collection mechanisms such as ethnography and qualitative interviewing (Bryman, 2012).

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THE METHODOLOGY ADOPTED TO UNDERSTAND THE DRIVERS