Qualitative Research Methods

Although there are several qualitative research methods, Cresswell (2009) identified four main commonly used strategies. These include grounded theory, ethnography, action research and case study. These are briefly discussed in the sections that follow.

4.4.3.1 Grounded Theory

The novel intention of the co-originators of the grounded theory research methodology (Glaser & Strauss 1967) was to systematically derive theories of human behaviour from empirical data. Charmaz (2006) indicated that by grounding theory development in data, Glaser & Strauss (1967) were able to bridge the void between theoretically uninformed empirical research and empirically uninformed theory. The approach commonly starts with a general problem conceived in a particular disciplinary perspective, focused towards an area of social concerns (Dey, 1999). The process involves multiple stages of data collection and the refinement and interrelationship of categories of information (Strauss & Corbin, 1997). The process of data analysis (open, axial and selective coding) is sequencial and consecutive and runs parallel with data collection. The coding categorises the data to reflect the emerging issues, and each phase guides the next stage until the final theory is grounded (Jones & Alony, 2011). Over the years, however, there have been different perspectives on the grounded theory, aiming to elucidate, expatiate, and even debate the process (Urquhart, 2001). Very public differences between the co-originators of the Grounded Theory approach were clear in their latter academic publications (Glaser, 1992; Strauss & Corbin, 1998). This situation has positioned the theory into two distinct variants. For example, Glaser (1992) leads with the principle that researchers should have an empty mind to allow theory to emerge, while Strauss & Corbin (1992) permit a general idea of the area under study and use structured questions to lead a more forced emergence of theory. . From a scholarly

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perspective, it is important for researchers to be aware of what version they use and the impact of adopting one version over the other on the research output (Urquhart, 2001; Kendall, 1999). 4.4.3.2 Ethnographic Study

The fundamental concept of ethnography is the belief that what individuals believe, understand, and act upon cannot be detached from their context. Thus, ethnographers immerse themselves in the lives of the social settings they study (Lewis, 1999), in all sorts of human interactions, be it a tribe, a recreational park, a hospital, a classroom or a social organisation of work (Whitehead, 2005). This approach has widely been used in technology innovation studies such as information technology management (Davies & Nielsen, 1992), the development of information systems (Hughes et al., 1995), and design and evaluation of information systems (Myers, 1997a). Field work is key part of the process and it involves documenting people’s beliefs and practices from the people’s own perspective. The ethnographer aims to produce vivid cultural interpretation, which entails the ability to describe what the researcher has heard and seen within the framework of the social groups’ view of reality (Fetterman, 2010).

Ethnographic research is on the extreme end of the inductive research domain, hence, the ability of a researcher to interpret culture from the “emic” or the insider’s view of reality is paramount in this research approach (Harris, 1976; Pike, 1967). Parallel to ‘emic’, an ‘etic’ or the outsider’s perspective on reality also becomes fundamental to ethnographic research. The ethnographers’ task according to Fetterman (2010) is not only to include insider’s meanings, but to translate them into concepts comprehensible to individuals outside the context or the society under study. Parallel to ‘emic’, an ‘etic’ or the outsider’s perspective on reality also becomes fundamental to ethnographic research. The balance between insider and outsider perspectives places special demands on the researcher. He must then remain open and non-judgemental about the actions and beliefs of the social groups under study, while making these understandings and practices lucid and meaningful to outsiders (Fellows & Lius, 2009; Riemer, 1997).

4.4.3.3 Action Research

Action research aims to contribute both to the practical concerns of people in an immediate problematic situation in a joint collaboration within a mutually acceptable ethical framework" (Rapoport, 1970). The research takes place in real-world situations and aims to solve real problems. It is also known variously as “participatory research” and “emancipatory research. Action research is based upon the principle that the researcher is within the field of the research and becomes a partner in the action and process of change (Baskerville & Wood-Harper, 1996; 1985). The role of the action researchers is to actively associate with the practical outcomes of

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the research, other than to seek to identify theoretical outcomes (Foster, 1972). By emphasising collaboration between researchers and practitioners, action research represents an ideal research method that address complex real-life problems and the immediate concerns of practitioners; researchers in return gain feedback from the practitioners to modify or improve on the research outcome. They acknowledged that successful action research is unlikely where there is conflict between researchers and practitioners or among practitioners themselves (Avison et al., 1999). 4.4.3.4 Case Studies

As a social scientist, Yin (1989, p.23) defines a case study as ‘‘an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident and in which multiple sources of evidence are used. The underlying idea for case research is said to be the many-sided view it can provide of a situation in its context. Instead of statistical representativeness, case studies offer depth and comprehensiveness for understanding the specific phenomenon. Gable (1994) contends that case study research provides the opportunity to ask penetrating questions and to capture the reality in considerably greater detail of organisational behaviour, although the conclusions drawn may be specific to the particular organisations studied and may not be generalisable to a wider population.

Yin (2003) suggests that case studies are appropriate where it is not necessary to control behavioural events or variables, but rather focuses on issues relating to processes. Benbasat et al. (1987) also emphasised that case study research allows the researcher to learn about the state-of- the-art6 and generate theories from practice; to understand the nature and complexity of the process taking place; and to gain insights into new topics emerging in the field under investigation. In innovation research, the case study method has previously been used variously, such as in the study of IS implementation effort (Amabile et al., 2001; Leonard-Barton, 1990); impact of IS on organisations; role and effects of IT on society (Nauman et al., 2005).