As an overview, data-analyses broadly entailed frequency tables in terms of the biographical variables in order to describe the amalgamated sample as well as the three worker groups, consisting of claims workers, trauma counsellors and holiday booking consultants. Simple statistics were next carried out in terms of the study variables. Distribution analysis was utilised to examine normality and to establish whether parametric statistical procedures were permissible. In the case where parametric assumptions were not met, data were transformed to closer resemble a normal distribution. These transformations, however, are clearly described and then indicated throughout the study. Means, standard deviations and frequencies in terms of the key variables were determined. Statistical analysis was also performed in terms of the biographical variables to determine sample homogeneity. Cronbach Alpha coefficients were calculated for each quantitative
measure to determine internal consistency reliability.
Group comparisons were at the centre of the analyses. To this end, the mean scores of the three worker groups were compared to ascertain whether there were any significant differences between them on the study variables. First, multivariate analysis of variance or MANOVA with effect size was performed on the dependent variables in relation to group. This type of analysis is used to analyse variance when two or more dependent as well as two or more independent variables are used (Rosenthal & Rosnow, 1991). Where there is interest in a number of dependent variables associated empirically and theoretically, as was the case in the present study, the MANOVA is the preferred method (Hassett, 2006). Hasset explains that the MANOVA is furthermore utilised to explore the main as well as the interaction effects of the categorical variable/s on an array of dependent interval variables. To further explore the results of the MANOVA, a series of one-way ANOVAs with effect size were performed. The ANOVA is described as an “all-purpose” significance test used to compare two or more groups (Rosnow & Rosenthal, 1996, p. 283).
Next, Pearson r correlation tests between the key study variables, being secondary traumatic stress, negative cognitive schemas, empathy, compassion satisfaction and social support were, carried out. This phase of the analysis focused on determining whether certain widely reported relationships between the study variables were true for the sample as well as each of the study groups. The strength and direction of such relationships were recorded. Multiple Regression analyses were then performed to estimate the quantitative effects of the explanatory or causal variables upon selected dependent variables. The dependent variables were the two vicarious trauma measures utilised by the study, being secondary traumatic stress and negative cognitive schemas. In each case, the explanatory variables utilised were empathy, compassion satisfaction and social support.
In addition, both quantitative and qualitative content analyses were performed on the data yielded by the self-constructed questionnaire. Utilising both forms of content analysis is in line with the most recent developments in this area (Stemler, 2001). Firstly, quantitative content analysis involved the frequency counts of units according to which the qualitative data were classified, summarised and tabulated. This approach was followed to express the magnitude of responses within this data. The assumption here is that the words or topics stated most often are sometimes reflective of the most prevalent or pressing concerns and issues (Stemler, 2001). Inferences were made by methodically and objectively identifying specified features of the data (Stemler, 2001). This form of content analysis has several limitations, such as the use of synonyms or the multiple meaning of words. To
curb over-counting, the study looked at words or phrases of interest within context, as suggested by Stemler. A-priori categories of interest to the study were developed in advance, after which frequency as well as the intensity of some of these predetermined units was determined. These a-
priori units related more to aspects of the theoretical model that had been deconstructed for use by
the proposed study.
In conjunction to applying the a-priori categories to the data, another level of analysis entailed looking at the data without the constraints of predetermined categories (Terre Blanche & Durrheim, 1999). In doing so there is a focus on what the data are naturally saying, and to thus express the emic voice of participants. To this end, there was a focus on emergent themes from which impressions could be formed. Content-based themes were developed inductively through close examination of the data (Wilbraham, 1995). Special attention was given to any interesting statements which stood out or demonstrated unusual or unique positions on the posed matters. Themes were extracted by scrutinising each questionnaire many times over, as it is believed that each reading emits new insight (Terre Blanche & Durrheim, 1999).
9 Ethics
The University of the Witwatersrand’s standards of ethics for research with human subjects were adhered to at all times. The identity of each participant and organisation was protected by strict privacy and materials pertaining to each were treated with the utmost integrity, respect and responsibility. Confidentiality was maintained whereby only the author had access to raw data, and the research supervisors viewed captured and coded data as well as samples of data used to determine inter-rater reliability.
Quotations from the self-constructed questionnaires were used sporadically, but anonymity was afforded at all times as no names or any identifying information was used. The primary document number generated by the analysis software for each participant was used to conceal their identities in all cases where quotations were taken from the data for use. Participants were clearly informed that their decision whether to participate or not, would not have any bearing or pose any risk to their employment. Each person was asked to sign or initial the participation consent form. Participants were asked to provide their names and contact details for clarification purposes only. However, participants were given the option to refrain from disclosing these details if they wished. A number of participants also chose not to sign or even initial their participation consent forms and, as stated before, the mere fact of their attending the voluntary data collection sessions and filling in the
questionnaires were viewed as indications of consent.
Participants reserved the right to withdraw from the study at any time. Participating organisations as well as individual participants did not run any risk of being singled out, portrayed negatively, or identified in any way. Questions contained in the scales and the self-constructed questionnaire were formulated with great care as not to be harmful, insulting or unnecessarily intrusive. Any participant who wished to obtain professional counselling was advised to contact the Centre for the Study of Violence and Reconciliation or Lifeline, as they offer gratis professional trauma counselling. All research data will be stored safely for the compulsory six year audit/verification period specified by the university, after which it will be destroyed. No identifying information will be used in the final report or any articles published from the research.
CHAPTER SIX: RESEARCH RESULTS Results from Quantitative Measures
As discussed before, Figley's model was deconstructed into its eleven constituent parts, after which data were collected on each element. Please refer to Figure 1 on page 60 for a copy of the model.
Appendix A gives a bird's-eye view of how the model was covered by the quantitative and qualitat-
ive legs of the study and indicates other areas investigated. This diagram also informs which quant- itative measures were utilised. Quantitative statistical analyses were used to examine the data from the scales. Firstly, internal consistency reliability of the various scales employed by the study was discussed under the methods chapter. This chapter discusses simple and descriptive statistics results which are presented first, followed by the analyses of results that are organised around each of the research questions.
1 Biographical Variables
Frequency distributions of all of the biographic variables were utilised to check for any outliers and impossible values. All scores were within range. Items of each scale were checked in the same fashion and all scores were again found to be in range.