Questionnaire Design

Questionnaires were used to explore the first research question by identifying and investigating the respondents’ self- evaluation of motivation and frequency of flow

experiences, in order to reveal the relationship between intrinsic motivation and flow. The secondary purpose was to identify suitable participants for the second phase of the study according to their degree of motivation and tendency to experience flow.

The similarities in performance expectations of elite sport performers and dancers suggested that it was feasible to apply instruments to the current study, which were developed and

28 tested in physical activity contexts. The Sport Motivation Scale-6 (SMS-6) (Mallet et al., 2007) and the Dispositional Flow Scale-2 (DFS-2) (Jackson et al., 2008), which have been shown in past research in sport to be valid and reliable measures, were therefore employed in the present investigation to assess motivational trends and flow experiences in the dance context.

Dispositional Flow Scale-2 questionnaire

The DFS-2 (Jackson and Eklund, 2004) is a self-report instrument, theoretically grounded in Csikszentmihalyi’s (1990) nine dimensional conceptualisation of flow, that assesses the participant’s dispositional tendency to experience flow on the nine flow dimensions of which the construct is comprised. The scale contains 36 items, four for each of the nine dimensions of flow. Respondents were asked to remember the frequency with which they experience flow in their activity and to rate their responses on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (always) (e.g. “ I do things spontaneously and automatically without having to think”). In previous studies the DFS-2 has demonstrated satisfactory levels of reliability, and confirmatory factor analyses showed support for the nine-factor model (Jackson and Eklund, 2004). The DFS-2 did not need to be modified as the items were designed to assess flow across diverse physical activities (see Appendix 1).

Sport Motivation Scale-6 questionnaire

The SMS-6 (Mallet et al., 2007) is a sport-specific self-report instrument, grounded in Deci and Ryan’s SDT (1985, 2000) that assesses six forms of motivation reflecting the various degrees of self-determination along a motivation continuum. The SMS-6 was developed

29 through the revision of the original SMS (Pelletier et al., 1995) with the inclusion of items measuring integrated regulation, concurring with the postulate of Deci and Ryan’ SDT (1985). The scale contains 24 items, four for each of the six factors representing the various forms of motivation. Minor adaptations were required: to change the word ‘sport’ to ‘ballet’ or ‘dance’ and ‘ballet dancer’ to the generic term ‘athlete’ (see Appendix 2). Respondents were asked why they engage in dance with items such as “because is an extension of me or “for the prestige of being a ballet dancer”. Participants responded using a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (does not correspond at all) to 5 (corresponds exactly). Inter-factor correlations demonstrated satisfactory levels of construct validity of the SMS-6 in a study by Mallet and colleagues (Mallet et al., 2007). While the concurrent validity was evaluated by examining correlations between the SMS-6 and DFS-2, demonstrating significant positive correlation between the intrinsic motivation factor and factor of the DFS-2, whereas the external and amotivation factor showed negative or no significant correlation (Mallet et al., 2007). These results supported Deci and Ryan’s (1985) hypotheses that the individual who is intrinsically motivated is more likely to experience flow because he/she will be interested in the task at hand.

The self-report measures were also employed in the investigation as screening devices to identify suitable participants for the qualitative phase of the study. The dancers were selected on their motivational tendencies and respective frequency to experience flow. The aim was to choose participants exhibiting traits supporting the theoretical relationship between

motivation and flow (high motivation-high flow and low motivation-low flow) and possibly, respondents who demonstrated characteristics conflicting with tenets of the flow theory (high motivation/ low flow and low motivation/ high flow).

30 3.3. Interview Design

After a show, dancers are struck by the diverse personal experiences of their individual performance, and the only way to find out how they felt when entering into a flow state, is to ask them. Interviews were employed to allow the researcher to focus on the meaning of particular phenomena to the participant, gain knowledge of conditions influencing their experiences, and help to clarify and validate quantitative measures in allowing the

interviewer to see if the participant's experiences concurred with the rating on the previous measures (Robson, 2002).

The interview schedule had six predetermined questions on flow (Appendix 3), but the order of the questions was modified in the interview process based upon the interviewer’s

perception of what seemed most appropriate to the emergent discussion, and additional ones were included (Oppenheim, 1966, 1992). The dancers were asked to remember their best and least successful performances to evoke rich descriptions of their flow experiences, and yield information about favourable or adverse conditions for the achievement of this optimal state of consciousness. The researcher listened carefully to the dancers’ past experiences of flow whilst performing and rehearsing, and subsequently interpreted the subjective meanings he/she expressed about the occurrence as shaped by his/her own understanding. At the end of the interview, the participants were also asked why they engaged in dance and what ballet meant to them, to check if their motivational tendencies concurred with the results of the previous measure.

31 3.4. Recruitment and Consent

Once written permission was obtained from the director of the ballet company, the dancers were addressed personally by the researcher and briefed about the procedure and the purpose of the study. To ensure they understood the nature of their participation and to gain their voluntary agreement to participate, willing dancers signed a consent form before completing the questionnaires (Appendix 4). Immediately following a ballet class the two questionnaires (SMS-6 and DFS-2) were distributed to the company. The qualitative phase of the study comprised semi-structured interviews with four participants, each lasting approx. 60 minutes, designed to explore their subjective experiences of flow. Voluntary consent was gained through signing a consent form prior the interviews (Appendix 5). Furthermore, at the end of the investigation, a summary report of the findings from the study will be made available to all the dancers who requested a copy.