Rationale for the Current Study

The current study aimed to explore the relationship between social values and perfectionist behaviour, considering value discrepancy and self-reported anxiety and depression. The study had an analogue design that utilised a ‘non-clinical’ population in controlled conditions and was intended to explore the potential efficacy of a theory and model of social values and value discrepancy applied to perfectionism in a mental health context.

Page 85 of 335 Influenced by Rokeach (1973) and Kluckhohn (1951), Schwartz (1992) defined social values as desirable, transsituational goals, varying in importance, that serve as guiding principles in people’s lives. The concept of values has been investigated in many areas of social

psychology (Kristiansen & Hotte, 1996; Rohan & Zanna, 1997; Steele & Liu, 1988; Tanner, et al., 2008). Values are also considered to be relevant to many different psychological

theories, including the theory of clinical depression (Beck, 1979) and theory of emotion (Johnson-Laird & Oatley, 1992). Whilst values have been greatly researched in the social psychology arena, there is a comparative lack of research of values applied to a mental health context. Despite this lack of research, concepts of values have become integrated in to several psychological therapies, including Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT; Hayes, et al., 2008), Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT; Beck, 1979), Narrative Therapy (White & Epston, 1990), Positive Psychology (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000), and Person Centred Therapy (Rogers, 1951, 1961).

The research literature and psychological therapies do appear to have common links in how values are conceptualised. Despite these commonalities, there are discrepancies in how research and practise are conceptualising and utilising values. In practise, the

conceptualisation and utilisation of values appears to have developed from practise based research and there is a lack of empirical research in values and their application to

psychological therapies (Wilson & Murrell, 2004). The current study will aim to utilise the existing empirical research on values to explore the application of values to psychological therapies and a mental health context.

Schwartz (1992) proposed a basic model of social values that offers an understanding of value priorities and motivational relations. The model offers a framework on which research may form and test predications about values and behaviour such as predicting the effects of value compatibility and conflict, value discrepancy, value motivated behaviour and impacts on emotional distress. The model has also been used in empirical research with diverse cross cultural samples and so was considered to have a cross cultural and construct validity (Bardi & Goodwin, 2011; Blisky, et al., 2011; Cieciuch & Schwartz, 2012; Davidov, et al.,

Page 86 of 335 2008; Maio, et al., 2009; Peng, et al., 1997; Schwartz, 1994, 1996, 1999, 2006; Schwartz, et al., 2001; Schwartz & Boehnke, 2004; Vecchione, et al., 2009). Therefore, Schwartz (1992) was considered to have potential use in exploring values, behaviours related to

psychological distress in a mental health context. The current study utilised Schwartz (1992) model of basic values due to the models ability to define, differentiate and understand how values relate to one another and impact on behavioural motivations. The original 1992 model was chosen due to the current lack of empirical research on Schwartz, et al. (2012) revised model. However, the revised model was considered with regard to how values relate to social and personal motivations and self-expansion/anxiety free and self- protection/anxiety avoidance motivations.

Maio (2010) proposed mental representation of values is compatible with Schwartz (1992) model and offers further understanding of values, emotions and behaviour. This model offers a framework on which research may form and test predictions about priming values to influence behaviour, specifically whether priming a value increases a behaviour that supports the value motivation whilst decreasing behaviour that support an opposing value motivation. The model has been in empirical research and was considered to have construct validity (Bargh, et al., 2001; Verplanken & Holland, 2002; Karremans, 2007). The priming methodology utilised by Maio, et al. (2009) and Maio (2010) to activate values was considered to potentially be a useful methodology to explore values, behaviour, and psychological distress in a mental health context.

Higgins (1987) proposed a theory of self-discrepancy that offers an understanding of how self-discrepancies may impact on psychological wellbeing. This may be a useful theory to consider exploring value discrepancy in relation to emotional distress. Higgins (1987) theory of self-discrepancy has been utilised in empirical research in both physical (Heidrich, et al., 1994; Cantor, et al., 2005; Kinderman et al., 2011) and mental health populations (Alatig et al., 2010; Ferrier & Brewin, 2005; Strauman, 1989; Van den Broeck, et al., 2012; Vergara- Lopez & Roberts, 2012; Wonderlich, et al., 2008). More recently, this model has been applied to value discrepancies (Parsons, 2013; Rees & Maio, 2009). The application of

Page 87 of 335 Higgins (1987) theory to value discrepancies was considered to have potential use in

exploring values and behaviours related to psychological distress in a mental health context.

The current study will utilise existing research on social values, the process of priming social values, and self-discrepancy to explore how social values relate to behaviour change, considering the role of value discrepancy and psychological distress. The study will specifically focus on Achievement value priorities that may be associated with the

presentation of perfectionism. Perfectionism has been suggested to relate to Achievement values, discrepancy and the experience of psychological distress. However, the effect of priming social values on perfectionism, considering the role of value discrepancy and psychological distress has not been researched. The current study had several hypotheses; each hypothesis is outlined in the following section.