Reading impairments and the effects within a classroom environment

The students’ descriptions of their intrinsic reading impairments (Shakespeare, 2014) within this research reflected how Rose (2009) defines dyslexia primarily as a difficulty with

securing accurate and fluent reading skills. As discussed in chapter 1.5, the dominant cognitive causal explanation for these reading difficulties is an impairment within

phonological processing as proposed by the Phonological Deficit Hypothesis (Bradley and Bryant, 1983). Within this research, the student’s descriptions of the difficulties they

experience with accuracy and fluency when reading is consistent with tenants of this theory.

The students explained how their reading was affected by the difficulties they experience with reading accurately, “I get really confused with words” (Jamie, year 5), “I can like read it

wrong and like interpret like words wrong and stuff” (Quinn, year 9), “I’m not really good at understanding words” (Haydon, year 6). The students also explained how their difficulties

year 6), “the books never make sense” (Alex, year 5). The students’ descriptions of their reading impairments are not only consistent with causal cognitive explanations of dyslexia, but they provide useful real-world insights into the complexity of the impact of reading impairments within the classroom and throughout the reading process. Further research within this area could enhance the field of cognitive causal explanations of dyslexia as the inclusion of student experiences offers a more relatable way to understand the reading difficulties and the effects experienced by dyslexic learners.

Students also expressed concern that their reading rate was ‘slow’, “too slow” (Riley, year 5), “really slow” (Haydon, year 6), “I’m very slow at reading” (Jamie, year 5). The students’ perceptions of their reading rate were mostly influenced by the extrinsic factor

(Shakespeare, 2014) of peer comparisons they made within the classroom environment, “Everyone else kind of reads quicker than me” (Leslie, year 8). Interestingly, the students’ perceptions of their reading rate was not affected by assessments they had undertaken to identify dyslexia which typically tests for a person’s reading rate. Peer comparisons with reading were noted within the previous lived experience research, however, this was limited to one participant's response, “not being able to read and write like the others”

(Hellendoorn and Ruijssenaars, 2000: 233). The extrinsic peer comparisons regarding reading is common within this current research and appear to have a negative impact on dyslexic students, who become aware of the difference in their reading abilities and those of their peers. This current research offers a valuable contribution to existing knowledge within the field of dyslexic research.

Another useful insight of peer comparison, which was only present amongst the primary school-aged students was their concern that their school reading book band was lower than their peers (book bands were briefly explained in chapter 5.3.2). The students spoke of their embarrassment and longing to be on the same book band as their peers, “I’m

behind…because everyone in my class are like two or three colours above me…I just want to be the same” (Jamie, year 5), “I don’t like reading lower books…I feel a bit weird cause they [school aged peers]can read them, but I can’t” (Ryan, year 4). Their desire to be on the same

humiliation the students felt about being on a visibly different coloured book. As the students had not read the same books as their peers, and often as the lower books were often deemed by the students as inappropriate for their age group, they had also expressed how they can feel excluded from conversations about books.

Although peer comparisons were not as dominant within literature reporting previous lived experience research participants, perceptions of their reading difficulties were also

influenced by extrinsic factors (Shakespeare, 2014). For example, participants within Tanners’ (2008) study spoke about the insults they had experienced from their teachers telling them to, “try harder and you might be able to read it” or commenting “that’s such an

easy piece to read, any fool could do it” (p 793). Participants within Hellendoorn and

Ruijssenaars’ (2000) study also recalled incidences of teacher bullying and humiliation experienced within the classroom “she often started reading lessons by saying, ‘Let’s listen

to A (read) and have a good laugh” (Participant, A, p. 233). Participants within Tanners’

(2008) study also spoke of incidences of physical abuse that they had endured from teachers, student U, described how “I’m sure they thought that hitting me with the ruler

would make me be able to read the words” (p793) and student P, explained that “my

teacher kicked me in the back of the chair. All I was doing at the time was trying to read” (p.

793).

Within the current research only one student, Riley, year 5, spoke about reading-related incidences of bullying and humiliation that they experienced within the classroom. Riley explained how sometimes they have “to read in front of the whole class…It makes me feel

nervous and a bit angry because sometimes I get the words incorrect. Then people erm…some people laugh at me”. Riley within this comment drew attention to the peer

ridicule that they experienced due to this humiliating situation. It is worth noting again, that Riley was attending a school categorised as dyslexia-friendly, where one might have

expected a more inclusive and skilful handling of the situation. Among other requirements, schools categorised as dyslexia-friendly, under no circumstances should they ever “demand

that a [dyslexic] learner reads out loud to the rest of the group” (MacKay, 2012: 154). This

experiences of dyslexic learners that highlighted the additional effects of reading difficulties within a classroom, for example, bullying and humiliation that students endure from

teachers due to their differences, but it illuminates not only how this can affect peer relationships but how there are inconsistencies that exist between policy and practice within schooling.

As visual impairments experienced during reading, for example, those discussed in chapter 1.4 that are suggested within the Magnocellular theory (Stein, 2001) are not included within definitions of dyslexia. Often visual impairments are not assessed for during dyslexic

assessments, and difficulties associated with visual stress are also absent from previous lived experience research. This research, therefore, offers a distinctive contribution to the field of dyslexic research namely, the inclusion of the reading difficulties that the students expressed within this research due to visual impairments.

Many of the students within the current research spoke of the physical discomfort they can experience when reading. This additional reading difficulty has been termed, visual stress (Rack and Turner, 2005; Evans and Allen, 2016) and it can further inhibit the reading process for a dyslexic learner. Reading was described by some students as being painful, “It hurts

your eyes” (Dylan, year 4), “I get a headache” (Jude, year 7), “if I stared at the [page] too long my eyes would get really painful” (Max, year 5). The Magnocellular Theory (Stein, 2001)

postulates that an impairment in the magnocellular system would cause letters “to appear

to move around and cross over each other” (Stein, 2001: 12) and the students’ descriptions

of their visual impairments within this research offer support for Stein’s suggestions. When reading, students described “letters moving” (Dylan, year 4), “I would even see them like

swap, bounce on and off the page” (Max, year 5), “the words get muddled up” (Jude, year 7)

and “the words would move” (Leslie, year 8).

As suggested by both Stein (2001) within the Magnocellular Theory and by the Irlen institute (2017), the student's experiences within this research drew attention to how the discomfort they experienced from visual stress can be alleviated with the use of coloured sheets placed on a page (overlays or filters, Rack and Turner, 2005), “I need my yellow sheet” (Jude, year 7)

or coloured glasses, “the lenses [in my glasses] are yellow”(Leslie, year 8). The students’ descriptions of the discomfort they experience when reading provides everyday insights into the effects of reading impairments, particularly within a classroom environment. Further research within this area could usefully develop the field of visual stress. Including dyslexic students’ perceptions of the benefits of coloured reading aids within a classroom

environment alongside neurological research could have practical applications to alleviate some symptoms of reading discomfort within schooling.

Within this research however it was suggested that the students use of coloured tinted reading aids within a classroom environment was dependent on their teacher’s approval. Also, as with the labelling of dyslexia, some students had been subjected to further negativity from their teachers when they requested use of a coloured tinted reading aid. Not only did one of Jude’s, (year 7), teachers prevent them from using their coloured filter within their classroom but they even continuously refused to acknowledge their visual discomfort, and instead, implied they needed prescription reading glasses, “my teacher

keeps saying that I need glasses and not a yellow sheet”.

There was a range of impairments the students experienced with reading, related to both intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Inevitably this affected their overall enjoyment of reading “I

really don’t like erm…doing reading” (Haydon, year 6), “makes you feel uncomfortable and almost upset” (Leslie, year 8), “I don’t like reading” (Alex, year 5). Additionally, it influenced

how they interpreted their reading ability “I’m rubbish at reading” (Jamie, year 5) “I can’t

read” (Jude, year 7), “really bad” (Haydon, year 6). A key insight within this research was not

only the perseverance of some students but the strategies they had devised. Although persevering with reading, despite the difficulties they experienced, often caused further frustration and unhappiness “I read on and read and try but I still won’t get it” (Alex, year 5) some students, however, remained so determined to improve their reading skills and find enjoyment from books that they had devised their own strategies. One student decided to read a book they had already read, as they already understood the story and another alternated reading between two books. By having two books at a time, one at their current reading level and one at a higher level, the student had decided to challenge themselves

and their reading abilities. Both strategies could be suggested as practical applications for dyslexic students within schooling and further research within this area could strengthen this suggestion.

As discussed in chapter 3.2.5, although it has been suggested by Shakespeare (2014: 37) that “it may be impossible to create one environment that is accessible to all potential users” due to the insights gained from the student's experiences within this research I would suggest that schooling could become more accessible for dyslexic students with, for example, the use of enabling technology. Although as Shakespeare (2014) claims that “everyone experiences their own impairment differently” (p. 37), within this research many of the students spoke of their shared experiences of reading impairments, for example, difficulties with reading accurately, fluently and reading slowly, when compared to aged- related peers.

With the use of enabling technology, dyslexic students could listen to whole books, such as books on a higher reading level so they could discuss the stories with peers, or have the option to listen to individual words, that they may have difficulties decoding, and therefore this could remediate the difficulties with accuracy, fluency and their reading rate. Enabling technology could also, alleviate dyslexic students’ embarrassment regarding lower coloured book bands as the colour could remain private and invisible to peers. Even when the

impairments are the same, Shakespeare (2014) suggests that different people “may require

different accommodation” (p. 37), such as dyslexic people requiring different coloured

paper, which Shakespeare (2014) suggests as being incompatible within a classroom environment. However, when using enabling technology, the requirement for different coloured paper and different coloured tinted reading aids can be diminished as students would be able to change the background colour of the information on the screen, which should alleviate any discomfort, some students can experience from visual stress.

Even though Shakespeare (2014) suggests that providing multiple book formats may be impractical within a school environment, as he also argues that barrier removal is needed to facilitate participation and minimise segregation I would stress that further research within

the area of the effectiveness of enabling technology and reading impairments experienced by dyslexic learners is needed.