Theory of reasoned-action-model: This model represents a comprehensive integration of attitude components into a structure that is designed to lead to

both better explanations and better predictions of behaviour. Similar to the basic tricomponent attitude model, the theory-of-reasoned-action model incorporates a cognitive component, an affective component, and a conative component; however these are arranged in a pattern different from that of the tricomponent model.

To understand intention, in accordance with this model, we also need to measure the subjective norms that influence an individual‘s intention to act. A subjective norm can be measured directly by assessing a consumer‘s feelings as to what relevant others would think of the action being contemplated; i.e., would they look favorably or unfavorably on the anticipated action?

2.3 Theory of Trying to Consume

The theory of trying to consume has been designed to account for the many cases where the action or outcome is not certain, but instead reflects the consumer‘s attempts to consume or purchase. In such cases there are often personal impediments and/or environmental impediments that might prevent the desired action or outcome from occurring. Here again, the key point is that in these cases of trying, the outcome is not, and cannot be assumed to be certain. The focus here is the ―trying‖ or seeking part, rather than the outcome (consumption)

3.1.3. Attitude-toward-the-ad models

The gist of this model can be explained by the following: 1) Normally, if you like an ad, you are more likely to purchase the advertised brand. 2) For a new product/brand, an ad has a stronger impact onbrand attitude and purchase intention.

3.2 Attitude Formation And Change 1. How are attitudes formed?

We examine attitude formation by dividing into three areas: how attitudes are learned, the sources of influence on attitude formation, and the impact of personality on attitude formation.

1. How attitudes are learned:

1) The shift from having no attitude toward a given object to having an attitude is learned. The learning may come from information exposure, consumers‘ own cognition (knowledge or belief), or experience.

2) Consumers may form an attitude before or after a purchase. 2. Sources of influence on attitude formation: personal experience, friends and family, direct marketing, or mass media.

3) Personality factors: such as high/low need for cognition (information seeking), and social status consciousness

3.2.1. Learning of Attitudes

By formation of attitude, we mean a situation, where there is a shift from having no attitude towards a given object to having some attitude toward it. This shift from no attitude to an attitude or the formation of attitude is a result of learning. Attitudes are generally formed through: · Repeated exposure to novel social objects,

· Classical conditioning, · Operant conditioning and

· Exposure to live and symbolic models.

Consumers generally purchase new products that are associated with a favorably viewed brand name. Their favorable attitude toward the brand name is frequently the result of repeated satisfaction with other products produced by the same company. In terms of classical conditioning, an established brand name is an unconditioned stimulus that has resulted in a favorable brand attitude through past positive reinforcement. A new product, which is yet to be linked to the established brand, would be the conditioned impulse. For example, by giving a

new anti-wrinkle lotion the benefit of its well-known and respected family name, Johnson & Johnson may be counting on an extension of the favorable attitude already associated with the brand name to the new product. They are counting on stimulus generalization from the brand name to the new product. It has been shown by research that the ―fit‖ between a parent brand like in the case of J&J and a brand extension, for instance, J&J‘s anti-wrinkle, is a function of two factors: (1) the similarity between the pre-existing product categories already associated with the parent brand and the new extension, and (2) the ―fit‖ or match between the images of the parent brand and the new extension. At times, attitudes follow the purchase and consumption of a product. For example, a consumer may purchase a brand-name product without having a prior attitude towards it, because it is the only product available like the last bottle of shampoo in a hotel store). Consumers sometimes make trial purchases of new brands from product categories in which they have little personal involvement. If they find the purchased brand to be satisfactory, then they are likely to develop a favorable attitude toward it. Life is too complicated to predict what attitudes will persist and which will change but early socialization experiences do shape attitudes.

3.2.2. Sources of Influence on Attitude Formation

The formation of consumer attitudes is strongly influenced by personal experience, the influence of family and friends, direct marketing, and mass media. Attitudes towards goods and services are primarily formed through the consumer‘s direct experience

Personality Factors

We know that the personality of each individual is different and it plays a very crucial role in formation of attitude. Say for example, if you have a high need for cognition, i.e., you crave for information and enjoy thinking. Then you are

likely to form a positive attitude in response to ads or direct mail that are rich in product related information. On the other hand, your friend Ravi, who is relatively low in need for cognition, is more likely to form positive attitudes in response to ads that feature an attractive model or well-known celebrity.

2. Attitude Change and Persuasion 3. Strategies of Attitude Change

Bringing about a change in the consumer attitudes is a very important strategic consideration for us marketing people. When the product or brand is the market leader, the marketers will work at ensuring that their customers continue to patronize their product with the existing positive attitude. Such firms also have to ensure that their existing loyal customers do not succumb to their competitor‘s attitude change ploys. But it is the firm whose is not the brand leader, which tries to adopt marketing strategies so as to change the attitudes of the market leaders, customers and win them over. Among the attitude change strategies that are available to them are:

1. Changing the consumer‘s basic motivational function 2. Associating the product with an admired group or event 3. Resolving two conflicting attitudes

4. Altering components of the Multi-attribute model, and 5. Changing consumer beliefs about competitor‘s brands. Now let us look at each of these strategies in greater details. 1. Changing the basic motivational function:

This strategy calls for changing consumer attitudes towards a product or brand by making a new need prominent. One such method changing motivation is called the functional approach. As per this approach, attitudes can be classified in terms of four functions, viz:

1. The utilitarian function 2. The ego defensive function

3. The value - expressive function 4. The Knowledge function.

The utilitarian function: A consumer develops a brand attitude because of its utility. In other words; we develop a favorable altitude towards a product because of its utility function. So marketers try to change consumer attitudes in favor of their products or brand by highlighting its utilitarian purpose, which they (the competitors consumers;) may not have considered.

Ego defensive function: Most individuals want to protect their self-image. They want re-assurance about their self-image from inner feelings or doubts. Firms marketing personal care and cosmetics try to appeal to this need and develop a favorable attitude change towards their products or brands by communicating a re-assurance to the consumers self concept

The value expressive function: A. consumer develops an attitude based on his general value, life style and outlook. If the target consumers hold a positive attitude towards being fashionable, then they will have a positive attitude towards high fashion clothes

The knowledge function: Human nature is such that individuals prefer to know and understand the people and things they are in contact. While product positioning, marketers try to do this and improve the consumers attitude towards their product or brand by highlighting its benefits over competing brands. 2. Associating the product with an admired group or event

At times attitudes come to be attached to certain groups, social events or causes. So marketers could try strategies whereby their product or service comes to be associated with certain events, social groups or causes.