CHAPTER 8 Conclusions and Recommendations
8.2 Recommendations
Extensive research efforts have to be directed towards the improvement of SZLDD design and the achievement of long-term stability of this system operated in a hypersaline environment. Thermoeconomic analysis and cost optimization, as well as development and validation of the model that predicts process performance for scale-up applications, are key issues to balance benefits from enhanced performance and drawbacks from higher energy demand.
Although approximately 70% of the energy extracted from the SGSP was used to drive thermal desalination, only half of this energy was effectively used to transport water vapour across the membrane, and the rest was lost by conduction in the membrane. Thus, improvements of DCMD membranes and modules are an important research area which could improve the performance of this coupled system. In addition, by having better insulation throughout the system more energy should be available for fresh water production. Thus,
102
further investigation of membrane properties, insulation of the system and optimal design for MD unit and solar pond should be addressed in the future.
Moreover, the DCMD capability to treat the brine solution of a SGSP, with the aim to reach zero liquid discharge, can be a promising means of salt production. Also, avoiding membrane wetting, scaling and promoting salt crystallization outside the membrane cell represent some future challenges.
Finally, advances in research and implementation of intermediate chemical precipitation allow the fast precipitation and crystallization of dissolved solids in installations with contained physical footprint. Desalination of brackish groundwater using high recovery and zero liquid discharge should therefore be considered in process portfolios during planning efforts.
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109 Appendixes:
Appendix A:
Saline water thermophesical properties equations: Thermal conductivity of seawater:
%========================================================================= % USAGE: k = SW_Conductivity(T,uT,S,uS)
%
% DESCRIPTION:
% Thermal conductivity of seawater at 0.1 MPa given by [1]
% Values at temperature higher than the normal boiling temperature % are calculated at the saturation pressure.
%
% INPUT:
% T = temperature % uT = temperature unit
% 'C' : [degree Celsius] (ITS-90) % 'K' : [Kelvin] % 'F' : [degree Fahrenheit] % 'R' : [Rankine] % S = salinity % uS = salinity unit % 'ppt': [g/kg] (reference-composition salinity) % 'ppm': [mg/kg] (in parts per million)
% 'w' : [kg/kg] (mass fraction)
% '%' : [kg/kg] (in parts per hundred) %
% Note: T and S must have the same dimensions %
% OUTPUT:
% k = thermal conductivity [W/m K] %
% Note: k will have the same dimensions as T and S % % VALIDITY: 0 < T < 180 C; 0 < S < 160 g/kg % % ACCURACY: 3.0% % % REVISION HISTORY:
% 2009-12-18: Mostafa H. Sharqawy ([email protected]), MIT % - Initial version
% 2012-06-06: Karan H. Mistry ([email protected]), MIT % - Allow T,S input in various units % - Allow T,S to be matrices of any size %
% DISCLAIMER:
% This software is provided "as is" without warranty of any kind. % See the file sw_copy.m for conditions of use and licence.
%
% REFERENCES:
% [1] D. T. Jamieson, and J. S. Tudhope, Desalination, 8, 393-401, 1970.
%========================================================================= T = 1.00024*T;
110
k = 10.^(log10(240+0.0002*S)+0.434*(2.3-
(343.5+0.037*S)./(T+273.15)).*(1-(T+273.15)./(647.3+0.03*S)).^(1/3)-3);
Density of seawater:
%========================================================================= % USAGE: rho = SW_Density(T,uT,S,uS)
%
% DESCRIPTION:
% Density of seawater at atmospheric pressure (0.1 MPa) using Eq. (8) % given by [1] which best fit the data of [2] and [3]. The pure water % density equation is a best fit to the data of [4].
% Values at temperature higher than the normal boiling temperature are
% calculated at the saturation pressure. %
% INPUT:
% T = temperature % uT = temperature unit
% 'C' : [degree Celsius] (ITS-90) % 'K' : [Kelvin] % 'F' : [degree Fahrenheit] % 'R' : [Rankine] % S = salinity % uS = salinity unit % 'ppt': [g/kg] (reference-composition salinity) % 'ppm': [mg/kg] (in parts per million)
% 'w' : [kg/kg] (mass fraction)
% '%' : [kg/kg] (in parts per hundred) %
% Note: T and S must have the same dimensions %
% OUTPUT:
% rho = density [kg/m^3] %
% Note: rho will have the same dimensions as T and S % % VALIDITY: 0 < T < 180 C; 0 < S < 160 g/kg; % % ACCURACY: 0.1% % % REVISION HISTORY:
% 2009-12-18: Mostafa H. Sharqawy ([email protected]), MIT % - Initial version
% 2012-06-06: Karan H. Mistry ([email protected]), MIT % - Allow T,S input in various units % - Allow T,S to be matrices of any size %
% DISCLAIMER:
% This software is provided "as is" without warranty of any kind. % See the file sw_copy.m for conditions of use and license.
%
% REFERENCES:
% [1] M. H. Sharqawy, J. H. Lienhard V, and S. M. Zubair, Desalination
% and Water Treatment, 16, 354-380, 2010. (http://web.mit.edu/seawater/)
% [2] Isdale, and Morris, Desalination, 10(4), 329, 1972.
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% [4] IAPWS release on the Thermodynamic properties of ordinary water substance, 1996. %========================================================================= a = [ 9.9992293295E+02 2.0341179217E-02 -6.1624591598E-03 2.2614664708E-05 -4.6570659168E-08 ]; b = [ 8.0200240891E+02 -2.0005183488E+00 1.6771024982E-02 -3.0600536746E-05 -1.6132224742E-05 ];
rho_w = a(1) + a(2)*T + a(3)*T.^2 + a(4)*T.^3 + a(5)*T.^4; D_rho = b(1)*s + b(2)*s.*T + b(3)*s.*T.^2 + b(4)*s.*T.^3 + b(5)*s^2.*T.^2;
rho = rho_w + D_rho;
Latent Heat of vaporization of seawater:
%========================================================================= % USAGE: hfg = SW_LatentHeat(T,uT,S,uS)
%
% DESCRIPTION:
% Latent heat of vaporization of seawater using Eq. (37) given by [1].
% The pure water latent heat is a best fit to the data of [2]. % Values at temperature higher than the normal boiling temperature are
% calculated at the saturation pressure. %
% INPUT:
% T = temperature % uT = temperature unit
% 'C' : [degree Celsius] (ITS-90) % 'K' : [Kelvin] % 'F' : [degree Fahrenheit] % 'R' : [Rankine] % S = salinity % uS = salinity unit % 'ppt': [g/kg] (reference-composition salinity) % 'ppm': [mg/kg] (in parts per million)
% 'w' : [kg/kg] (mass fraction)
% '%' : [kg/kg] (in parts per hundred) %
% Note: T and S must have the same dimensions %
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% hfg = Latent heat of vaporization [J/kg] %
% Note: hfg will have the same dimensions as T and S % % VALIDITY: 0 < T < 200 C; 0 < S < 240 g/kg % % ACCURACY: 0.01 % % % REVISION HISTORY:
% 2009-12-18: Mostafa H. Sharqawy ([email protected]), MIT % - Initial version
% 2012-06-06: Karan H. Mistry ([email protected]), MIT % - Allow T,S input in various units % - Allow T,S to be matrices of any size %
% DISCLAIMER:
% This software is provided "as is" without warranty of any kind. % See the file sw_copy.m for conditions of use and licence.
%
% REFERENCES:
% [1] M. H. Sharqawy, J. H. Lienhard V, and S. M. Zubair, Desalination
% and Water Treatment, 16, 354-380, 2010. (http://web.mit.edu/seawater/)
% [3] IAPWS release on the Thermodynamic properties of ordinary water substance, 1996. %======================================================================= a = [ 2.5008991412E+06 -2.3691806479E+03 2.6776439436E-01 -8.1027544602E-03 -2.0799346624E-05 ];
hfg_w = a(1) + a(2)*T + a(3)*T.^2 + a(4)*T.^3 + a(5)*T.^4; hfg = hfg_w.*(1-0.001*S);
Prandtl number of seawater:
%========================================================================= % USAGE: Pr = SW_Prandtl(T,uT,S,uS)
%
% DESCRIPTION:
% Prandtl number of seawater at atmospheric pressure (0.1 MPa) using % specific heat, viscosity, and thermal conductivity correlations given in [1].
% Values at temperature higher than the normal boiling temperature % are calculated at the saturation pressure.
%
% INPUT:
% T = temperature % uT = temperature unit
% 'C' : [degree Celsius] (ITS-90) % 'K' : [Kelvin] % 'F' : [degree Fahrenheit] % 'R' : [Rankine] % S = salinity % uS = salinity unit % 'ppt': [g/kg] (reference-composition salinity)
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% 'ppm': [mg/kg] (in parts per million) % 'w' : [kg/kg] (mass fraction)
% '%' : [kg/kg] (in parts per hundred) %
% Note: T and S must have the same dimensions %
% OUTPUT:
% Pr = Prandtl number [-] %
% Note: Pr will have the same dimensions as T and S %
% VALIDITY: 0 < T < 180 C and 0 < S < 150 g/kg; %
% ACCURACY: 3.4% (estimated at average value within the range) %
% REVISION HISTORY:
% 2009-12-18: Mostafa H. Sharqawy ([email protected]), MIT % - Initial version
% 2012-06-06: Karan H. Mistry ([email protected]), MIT % - Allow T,S input in various units % - Allow T,S to be matrices of any size