Recommendations

• Non-destructive testing (NDT) should be employed in order to detect the actual extent of rot in timber members where heart rot is detected from sounding or fruiting bodies are present.

111

Members with softening should be monitored with NDT equipment so that rot can be detected when it occurs (if it occurs).

• If the full semi continuous and parabolic full semi continuous models are to be analyzed,

equipment capable of reading the modulus of elasticity for all timber stringers in the field should be used (recommended for smaller structures with fewer spans).

• Strain gages should be installed in all stringers in one given span, where no decay is present, in order to determine the load distribution among stringers.

• Strain gages should be installed in all posts in a given bent, where little to no decay is present and even bearing is provided among the posts, in order to determine the actual load distribution among posts or piles.

• Large steel structures like bridge 1.4 should be analyzed using 3D models where actual end strain conditions among connecting members (Girder/Floorbem and Floorbeam/Stringer) are used in order to provide more accurate results.

• Spot painting and rust removal, together with periodic maintenance shall help prolong the service life of bridge 1.4.

112

References

AASHTO. (2014). Manual for Bridge Evaluation . American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO).

Abhari, R. S. (2007). Rehabilitation of Timber Railroad Bridges Using Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer Composite. West Virginia University, Civil and Environmental Engineering. Morgantown: West Virginia University.

Administration, U. D. (2015, November 05). Prefrabricated Steel Bridge Systems: Final Report . Retrieved from U.S. Department of Transportation Federal Highway Administration:

http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bridge/prefab/psbsreport03.cfm

American Wood Council. (2014). National Design Specification (NDS) for Wood Construction 2015 Edition. Leesburg: American Wood Council.

Anderson, W. (2012). Will Anderson's Train Art. Retrieved from

http://trainweb.org/willstrainart/Train_Art_files/Steam_line/RDGI10/IM1.htm AREMA. (2014). Manual for Railway Engineering. Lanham: AREMA.

AZoM.com. (2013, June 11). www.azom.com. Retrieved from AZO Materials: http://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=764

Bowman, M. D., & Piskorowski, A. M. (2004). Evaluation and Repair of Wrought Iron and Steel Structures in Indiana. West Lafayette: Purdue University.

Clarke, A. R. (2003). The West Virginia Central and Pittsburg Railway: A Western Maryland Predecessor. TLC Publishing.

Conway, W. B. (2001). Practical Application of the Rating Rules. New Orleans: Modjeski and Masters, Inc. Corporation, Alaska Railroad. (n.d.). Timber Trestle Bridges in Alaska Railroad History. Anchorage: Alaska

Railroad Corporation.

Crook, W. J. (1927). Alloy Steels and Their Uses. Journal of Chemical Education, 4(5), 583. Donaldson, S. L., & Miracle, D. B. (2001). ASM Handbook - Composites (10 ed., Vol. 21). ASM

113

Duwadi, S. R., & Ritter, M. A. (1997, Winter). Timber Bridges in The United States. Retrieved from http://www.fhwa.dot.gov:

http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/publicroads/97winter/p97wi32.cfm

Eby, R. (1986). Timber & glulam as structural materials, general history. Engineered Timber Workshop, (p. 15). Portland, OR.

Fisher, D. A. (1963). The Epic of Steel. New York: Harper & Row.

Forest Products Laboratory. (2010). Wood Handbook - Wood as an Engineering Material. Madison: Forest Products Laboratory, United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service.

Fruehan, R. J. (1998). The Making, Shaping and Treating of Steel: Steelmaking and Refining (11 ed., Vol. 2). Pittsburgh: The AISE Steel Foundation.

Gillett, H. W. (1926). High Silicon Structural Steel. Department of Commerce, Bureu of Standards. Gómez, S., & Svecova, D. (2008, April 1). Behavior of Split Timber Stringers Reinforced with External

GFRP Sheets. Journal of Composites for Construction, 12, 202-211. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)1090- 0268(2008)12:2(202)

Gutkowski, R. M. (2001). Field Load Tests of Open-Deck Timber Trestle Railroad Bridges. Fort Collins: Colorado State University.

Hagos, M. W. (2001). Repair of Heavily Decayed Timber Piles Using Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymers (GFRP) and Cementitious Grout. Civil and Geological Engineering. Winnipeg: University of Manitoba.

Jackson, G., Howard, J., & Hammett, A. L. (2001). Use and Production of Solid Sawn Timbers in the United States. Forest Products Journal, 51, 24-25.

Jain, R., & Lee, L. (2012). Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) Composites for Infrastructure Applications. Springer.

Kara, O. E. (2011). Field Testing and Finite Element Analysis for Evaluation of Railroad Bridges. Civil and Environmental Engineering. New Brunswick: Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey. Laman, J. A., & Guyer, R. C. (2010). Condition Assessment of Short-line Railroad Bridges in Pennsylvania .

114

Mallick, P. K. (2007). Fiber-Reinforce Composites: Materials, Manufacturing, and Design (3rd ed.). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

Mee, B., McCown, B., Davids, G. A., & Nejikovsky, B. (1994). Overview of Railroad Bridges and Assessment of Methods to Monitor Railroad Bridge Integrity. United States Department of Transportation Federal Railroad Administration.

Mohammadi, A., Gull, J. H., Taghinezhad, R., & Azizinamini, A. (2014). Assessment and Evaluation of Timber Piles Used in Nebraska for Retrofit and Rating. Florida International University, Civil and Environmental Engineering. Miami, FL: Florida International University.

Petersen, R. C. (1984). http://www.fpl.fs.fed.us/documnts/pdf1984/pette84a.pdf.

Ritter, M. A. (1992). Timber Bridges Design, Construction, Inspection, and Maintenance. Washington DC: United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service.

Saafi, M., & Asa, E. (2010). Extending the Service Life of Electric Distribution and Transmission Wooden Poles Using a Wet Layup FRP Composite Strengthening System. Journal of Performance of Constructed Facilities, 24, 409-416. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)CF.1943-5509.0000117

Simcoe, C. R. (2014, July 1). Metallurgy Lane: The History of Alloy Steels: Part I. Advanced Materials & Processes (ASM International), 172(7), 34-35.

Smith, A. W. (2004). Rehabilitation of Timber Railroad Bridges Using Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer Composite Wraps. Civil and Environmental Engineering. Morgantown: West Virginia University. Terry Wipf, M. R. (2000, April 3-5). Evaluation and Field Load Testing of Timber Railroad Bridge.

Transportation Research Record, 327-330.

The Colling Croup, Ltd. (2002). Timber Pile Design and Construction Manual. Falls Church: Timber Pile Council, American Wood Preservers Institute.

Unsworth, J. F. (2003). Heavy Axle Load Effects on Fatigue Life of Steel Bridges. Calgary: Canadian Pacific Railway.

Uppal, A. S. (2005). Coping with the Older Railroad Steel Bridges. Edmonton: IMA Infrastructure Engineering Inc.

115

Vermes, W. J. (2011). Design and Performance of Riveted Bridge Connections. Akron: Iron and Steel Preservation Conference Newsletter.

Westbrook Associated Engineers, E80 Pluss Constructors. (2006). Impact of Railcar Weight Changes on Bridges of the State of Wisconsin-Owned Railroad System. Madison: Wisconsin Department of Transportation.

Zhang, W., Song, X., Gu, X., & Tang, H. (2012, June 1). Compressive Behavior of Longitudinally Cracked Timber Columns Retrofitted Using FRP Sheets. Journal of Structural Engineering, 138, 90-98. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0000423