To eliminate environmental effects, emissions of cadmium from the following sources should be reduced as far as is practicable:
* smelters * incinerators
* sewage sludge applied to the land * phosphate fertilisers
* cadmium-containing manure 11. FURTHER RESEARCH
a) More study is needed to clarify the effects of cadmium on the decomposition process of plant debris. Effects on the degree of nutrient cycling and long-term plant growth and the exact nature of the inhibition of decomposition require further attention.
b) The adsorption of cadmium to soil and sediment requires further study and quantification of coefficients. Modelling of binding and distribution in the environment is needed.
c) Organisms that are particularly sensitive (i.e. indicator species) or that play a critical role in ecological systems should be identified and studied with regard to the effects of cadmium.
d) Studies are needed on the basic mechanisms by which cadmium interacts with physiological and biochemical processes in
organisms and within individual cells.
There is a need to take certain precautions in studies on
cadmium. Firstly, the speciation of the metal should be considered in experimental design and procedures and a clear measure of the
available cadmium should be reported. Secondly, studies of the uptake and movement between trophic levels should include the relationship between the non-nutrient cadmium and the nutrients calcium and zinc.
REFERENCES
ABEL, P.D. & PAPOUTSOGLOU, S.E. (1986) Lethal toxicity of cadmium to Cyprinus carpio and Tilapia aurea. Bull. environ. Contam.
Toxicol., 37: 382-386.
ADRIANO, D.C. (1986) Trace elements in the terrestrial environment, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, Springer-Verlag, 533 pp.
AHSANULLAH, M. (1976) Acute toxicity of cadmium and zinc to seven invertebrate species from Western Port, Victoria. Aust. J. mar.
freshwater Res., 27: 187-196.
ALLOWAY, B.J., JACKSON, A.P., & MORGAN, H. (1990) The accumulation of cadmium by vegetables grown on soils contaminated from a variety of sources. Sci. total Environ., 91: 223-236.
ANADU, D.I., CHAPMAN, G.A., CURTIS, L.R., & TUBB, R.A. (1989) Effect of zinc exposure on subsequent acute tolerance to heavy metals in rainbow trout. Bull. environ. Contam. Toxicol., 43: 329-336.
ANDERSSON, A. (1977) Heavy metals in Swedish soils: on their
retention, distribution and amounts. Swed. J. agric. Res., 7: 7-20.
ANDERSSON, A. & HAHLIN, M. (1981) Cadmium effects from phosphorus fertilization in field experiments. Swed. J. agric. Res., 11: 3-10.
ANDREWS, S.M., JOHNSON, M.S., & COOKE, J.A. (1984) Cadmium in small mammals from grassland established on metalliferous mine waste.
Environ. Pollut., 33A: 153-162.
ARILLO, A., CALAMARI, D., MARGIOCCO, C., MELODIA, F., & MENSI, P.
(1984) Biochemical effects of long-term exposure to cadmium and copper on rainbow trout ( Salmo gairdneri): validation of water quality
criteria. Ecotoxicol. environ. Saf., 8: 106-117.
AYLETT, B.J. (1979) The chemistry and bioinorganic chemistry of
cadmium. In: Webb, M., ed. The chemistry, biochemistry and biology of cadmium, Amsterdam, Elsevier/North Holland, pp. 1-43.
BABICH, H. & STOTZKY, G. (1977a) Reductions in the toxicity of cadmium to microorganisms by clay minerals. Appl. environ. Microbiol., 33:
696-705.
BABICH, H. & STOTZKY, G. (1977b) Effect of cadmium on fungi and on interactions between fungi and bacteria in soil: influence of clay minerals and pH. Appl. environ. Microbiol., 33: 1059-1066.
BAHNER, L.H. & NIMMO, D.R. (1975) Methods to assess effects of combinations of toxicants, salinity and temperature on estuarine animals. In: Hemphill, D.D., ed. Trace substances in environmental health - IX, Columbia, University of Missouri, pp. 169-177.
BAUDOUIN, M.F. & SCOPPA, P. (1974) Acute toxicity of various metals to freshwater zooplankton. Bull. environ. Contam. Toxicol., 12: 745-751.
BAZZAZ, F.A., CARLSON, R.W., & ROLFE, G.L. (1974) The effect of heavy metals on plants: part 1. Inhibition of gas exchange in sunflower by Pb, Cd, Ni and Tl. Environ. Pollut., 7A: 241-246.
BEHNE, D. (1980) Problems of sampling and sample preparation for trace element analysis in the health sciences. In: Bratter, P. & Scramel, P., ed. Trace elements analytical chemistry in medicine and biology.
Proceedings of the 1st International Workshop, Neuherberg, Germany, Berlin, Walter de Gruyter, pp. 769-782.
BENGTSSON, B-E. & BERGSTROM, B. (1987) A flowthrough fecundity test with Nitocra spinipes (Harpacticoidea Crustacea) for aquatic
toxicity. Ecotoxicol. environ. Saf., 14: 260-268.
BENGTSSON, B-E., CARLIN, C.H., LARSSON, A., & SVANBERG, O. (1975) Vertebral damage in minnows, Phoxinus phoxinus L., exposed to cadmium. Ambio, 4: 166-168.
BENNETT, W.N. (1990) Measurement of manganese amelioration of cadmium toxicity in Chlorella pyrenoidosa using turbidostat culture. Arch.
environ. Contam. Toxicol., 19: 118-123.
BENOIT, D.A., LEONARD, E.N., CHRISTENSEN, G.M., & FIANDT, J.T. (1976) Toxic effects of cadmium on three generations of brook trout
( Salvelinus fontinalis). Trans. Am. Fish. Soc., 105: 550-560.
BERGER, B. & DALLINGER, R. (1989) Accumulation of cadmium and copper by the terrestrial snail Arianta arbustorum L.: kinetics and
budgets. Oecologia, 79: 60-65.
BERGLIND, R. (1986) Combined and separate effects of cadmium, lead and zinc on ALA-D activity, growth and hemoglobin content in Daphnia
magna. Environ. Toxicol. Chem., 5: 989-995.
BERK, S.G., GUNDERSON, J.H., & DERK, L.A. (1985) Effects of cadmium and copper on chemotaxis of marine and freshwater ciliates. Bull.
environ. Contam. Toxicol., 34: 897-903.
BERTRAM, P.E. & HART, B.A. (1979) Longevity and reproduction of Daphnia pulex (de Geer) exposed to cadmium-contaminated food or water. Environ. Pollut., 19A: 295-305.
BESTEN, P.J. DEN, HERWIG, H.J., ZANDEE, D.I., & VOOGT, P.A. (1989) Effects of cadmium and PCBs on reproduction of the sea star Asterias
rubens: Aberrations in the early development. Ecotoxicol. environ.
Saf., 18: 173-180.
BEWLEY, R.J.F. & STOTZKY, G. (1983) Effects of cadmium and zinc on microbial activity in soil; influence of clay minerals. Part 1: Metals added individually. Sci. total Environ., 31: 41-55.
BEYER, W.N., CHANEY, R.L., & MULHERN, B.M. (1982) Heavy metal
concentrations in earthworms from soil amended with sewage sludge. J.
environ. Qual., 11: 381-385.
BEYER, W.N., PATTEE, O.H., SILEO, L., HOFFMAN, D.J., & MULHERN, B.M.
(1985) Metal contamination in wildlife living near two zinc smelters.
Environ. Pollut., 38A: 63-86.
BIESINGER, K.E. & CHRISTENSEN, G.M. (1972) Effects of various metals on survival, growth, reproduction, and metabolism of Daphnia magna.
J. Fish Res. Board Can., 29: 1691-1700.
BINGHAM, F.T., PAGE, A.L., & STRONG, J.E. (1980) Yield and cadmium content of rice grain in relation to addition rate of cadmium, copper, nickel and zinc, with sewage sludge and liming. Soil Sci., 130: 32-38.
BLACK, J.A. & BIRGE, W.J. (1989) An avoidance response bioassay for aquatic pollutants, Lexington, Kentucky, University of Kentucky, Water Resources Research Institute (Research Report No. 123).
BLOCK, M. (1991) Uptake of cadmium in fish. Effects of xanthates and diethyldithiocarbamate, University of Uppsala, Sweden, Faculty of Sciences (Universitatis Uppsaliensis - Comprehensive summaries of Uppsala dissertations from the Faculty of Science. No. 326).
BLOCK, M. & PART, P. (1986) Increased availability of cadmium to perfused rainbow trout ( Salmo gairdneri Rich.) gills in the presence of the complexing agents diethyl dithiocarbamate, ethyl xanthate and isopropyl xanthate. Aquat. Toxicol., 8: 295-302.
BOND, H., LIGHTHART, B., SHIMABUKU, R., & RUSSELL, L. (1976) Some effects of cadmium on coniferous forest soil and litter microcosms.
Soil Sci., 121: 278-287.
BORGMANN, U. (1983) Metal speciation and toxicity of free metal ions to aquatic biota. In: Nriagu, J.O., ed. Aquatic toxicology, New York, Chichester, John Wiley & Sons, pp. 47-72.
BORGMANN, U. & RALPH, K.M. (1986) Effects of cadmium,
2,4-dichlorophenol, and pentachlorophenol on feeding, growth, and particle-size-conversion efficiency of white sucker larvae and young common shiners. Arch. environ. Contam. Toxicol., 15: 473-480.
BORGMANN, U., MILLARD, E.S., & CHARLTON, C.C. (1989a) Effect of cadmium on a stable, large volume, laboratory ecosystem containing
Daphnia and phytoplankton. Can. J. Fish. aquat. Sci., 46: 399-405.
BORGMANN, U., RALPH, K.M., & NORWOOD, W.P. (1989b) Toxicity test procedures for Hyalella azteca, and chronic toxicity of cadmium and pentachlorophenol to H. azteca, Gammarus fasciatus, and Daphnia
magna. Arch. environ. Contam. Toxicol., 18: 756-764.
BOYLE, E.A., SCALTER, F., & EDMOND, J.M. (1976) On the marine geochemistry of cadmium. Nature (Lond.), 263: 42-44.
BRESSAN, M. & BRUNETTI, R. (1988) The effects of nitriloacetic acid, Cd and Hg on the marine algae Dunaliella tertiolecta and Isochrysis
galbana. Water Res., 22: 553-556.
BROOKS, R.R. & RUMSBY, M.G. (1967) Studies on the uptake of cadmium by the oyster, Ostrea sinuata (Lamarck). Aust. J. mar. freshwater Res., 15: 53-61.
BUCHAUER, M.J. (1972) The effects of zinc and cadmium pollution on forest vegetation. Bull. New Jersey Acad. Sci., 17(2): 42.
BULL, K.R., MURTON, R.K., OSBORN, D., WARD, P., & CHENG, L. (1977) High levels of cadmium in Atlantic seabirds and sea-skaters. Nature (Lond.), 269: 507-509.
BURKITT, A., LESTER, P., & NICKLESS, G. (1972) Distribution of heavy metals in the vicinity of an industrial complex. Nature (Lond.), 238:
327-328.
BYRNE, A.R., RAVNIK, V., & KOSTA, L. (1976) Trace element concentrations in higher fungi. Sci. total Environ., 6: 65-78.
CAIN, J.R., PASCHAL, D.C., & HAYDEN, C.M. (1980) Toxicity and bioaccumulation of cadmium in the colonial green alga Scenedesmus
obliquus. Arch. environ. Contam. Toxicol., 9: 9-16.
CAIN, B.W., SILEO, L., FRANSON, J.C., & MOORE, J. (1983) Effects of dietary cadmium on mallard ducklings. Environ. Res., 32: 286-297.
CALABRESE, A., COLLIER, R.S., NELSON, D.A. & MACINNES, J.R. (1973) The toxicity of heavy metals to embryos of the American oyster
Crassostrea virginica. Mar. Biol., 18: 162-166.
CALAMARI, D., MARCHETTI, R., & VAILATI, G. (1980) Influence of water hardness on cadmium toxicity to Salmo gairdneri Rich. Water Res., 14: 1421-1426.
CANTON, J.H. & SLOOFF, W. (1982) Toxicity and accumulation studies of cadmium (Cd2+) with freshwater organisms of different trophic
levels. Ecotoxicol. environ. Saf., 6: 113-128.
CARRIER, R. & BEITINGER, T.L. (1988a) Reduction in thermal tolerance of Notropis lutrensis and Pimephales promelas exposed to cadmium.
Water Res., 22: 511-515.
CARRIER, R. & BEITINGER, T.L. (1988b) Resistance of temperature
tolerance ability of green sunfish to cadmium exposure. Bull. environ.
Contam. Toxicol., 40: 475-480.
CARROLL, J.J., ELLIS, S.J., & OLIVER, W.S. (1979) Influences of
hardness constituents on the acute toxicity of cadmium to brook trout ( Salvelinus fontinalis). Bull. environ. Contam. Toxicol., 22:
575-581.
CARVALHO, F.M., TAVARES, T.M., SILVANY-NETO, A.M., LIMA, M.E.C., &
ALT, F. (1986) Cadmium concentrations in blood of children living near a lead smelter in Bahia, Brazil. Environ. Res., 40: 437-449.
CATALDO, D.A. & WILDUNG, R.E. (1978) Soil and plant factors influencing the accumulation of heavy metals by plants. Environ.
Health Perspect., 27: 149-159.
CEARLEY, J.E. & COLEMAN, R.L. (1974) Cadmium toxicity and
bioconcentration in largemouth bass and bluegill. Bull. environ.
Contam. Toxicol., 11: 146-151.
CHAN, K.-Y. & DEAN, A.C.R (1988) Effects of cadmium and lead on growth, respiration and enzyme activity of the marine bacterium
Pseudomonas marina. Chemosphere, 17: 597-607.
CHANDINI, T. (1988) Changes in food [ Chlorella] levels and the acute toxicity of cadmium to Daphnia carinata (Daphnidae) and Echinisca
triserialis (Macrothricidae) [Crustacea: Cladocera]. Bull. environ.
Contam. Toxicol., 41: 398-403.
CHANDINI, T. (1989) Survival, growth and reproduction of Daphnia carinata (Crustacea: Cladocera) exposed to chronic cadmium stress at different food ( Chlorella) levels. Environ. Pollut., 60: 29-45.
CHANEY, R.L., WHITE, M.C., & SIMON, P.W. (1975) Plant uptake of heavy metals from sewage sludge applied to land. In: Proceedings of the 2nd National Conference on Municipal Sludge Management, Rockville,
Information Transfer Inc., pp. 169-178.
CHAPMAN, G. & DUNLOP, S. (1981) Detoxification of zinc and cadmium by
the freshwater protozoan Tetrahymena pyriformis. I. The effect of water hardness. Environ. Res., 26: 81-86.
CHIN, B. & SINA, J.F. (1978) Cellular bases of cadmium toxicity in Physarum. In: Hemphill, D.D., ed. Trace substances in environmental health, Columbia, University of Missouri, pp. 214-219.
CHRISTENSEN, J.J., EATOUGH, D.J., & IZATT, R.M. (1975) In: Handbook of metal ligand heats and related thermodynamic quantities, 2nd ed.
revis. expand., New York, Basel, Marcel Dekker, Inc., 495 pp.
CLUBB, R.W., GAUFIN, A.R., & LORDS, J.L. (1975a) Synergism between dissolved oxygen and cadmium toxicity in five species of aquatic insects. Environ. Res., 9: 285-289.
CLUBB, R.W., GAUFIN, A.R., & LORDS, J.L. (1975b) Acute cadmium
toxicity studies upon nine species of aquatic insects. Environ. Res., 9: 331-341.
CONRAD, G.W. (1988) Heavy metal effects on cellular shape changes, cleavage, and larval development of the marine gastropod mollusk, ( Ilyanassa obsoleta Say). Bull. environ. Contam. Toxicol., 41:
79-85.
CONWAY, H.L. (1978) Sorption of arsenic and cadmium and their effects on growth, micronutrient utilization, and photosynthetic pigment composition of Asterionella formosa. J. Fish Res. Board. Can., 35:
286-294.
COOMBS, T.L. (1979) Cadmium in aquatic organisms. In: Webb, M., ed.
The chemistry, biochemistry and biology of cadmium, Amsterdam, Elsevier/North Holland, pp. 93-139.
COUGHTREY, P.J. & MARTIN, M.H. (1976) The distribution of Pb, Zn, Cd and Cu within the pulmonate mollusc Helix aspersa Muller. Oecologia, 23: 315-322.
COUGHTREY, P.J. & MARTIN, M.H. (1977) Cadmium tolerance of Holcus lanatus from a site contaminated by aerial fallout. New Phytol., 79:
273-280.
COUGHTREY, P.J., JONES, C.H., MARTIN, M.H., & SHALES, S.W. (1979) Litter accumulation in woodlands contaminated by Pb, Zn, Cd and Cu.
Oecologia, 39: 51-60.
DALLA VIA, G.J., DALLINGER, R., & CARPENE, E. (1989) Effects of cadmium on Murex trunculus from the Adriatic Sea. II. Oxygen
consumption and acclimation effects. Arch. environ. Contam. Toxicol., 18: 562-567.
DALLINGER, R. & WIESER, W. (1984) Patterns of accumulation,
distribution and liberation of Zn, Cu, Cd and Pb in different organs of the land snail Helix pomatia L. Comp. Biochem. Physiol., 79C:
117-124.
DALLINGER, R., PROSI, F., SEGNER, H., & BACK, H. (1987) Contaminated food and uptake of heavy metals by fish: a review and proposal for further research. Oecologia, 73: 91-98.
DAWSON, M.A., GOULD, E., THURBERG, F.P., & CALABRESE, A. (1977) Physiological response of juvenile striped bass, Morone saxatilis, to low levels of cadmium and mercury. Chesapeake Sci., 18: 353-359.
DENTON, G.R.W. & BURDON-JONES, C. (1981) Influence of temperature and
salinity on the uptake, distribution and depuration of mercury, cadmium and lead by the black-lip oyster Saccostrea echinata. Mar.
Biol., 64: 317-326.
DE VRIES, M.P.C. & TILLER, K.G. (1978) Sewage sludge as a soil amendment with special reference to Cd, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn -
comparison of results from experiments conducted inside and outside a glasshouse. Environ. Pollut., 16A: 231-240.
DE ZWART, D. & SLOOF, W. (1987) Toxicity of mixtures of heavy metals and petrochemicals to Xenopus laevis. Bull. environ. Contam.
Toxicol., 38: 345-351.
DICKSON, G.W., GIESY, J.P., & BRIESE, L.A. (1982) The effect of chronic cadmium exposure on phosphodenylate concentrations and adenylate energy of gills and dorsal muscle of crayfish. Environ.
Toxicol. Chem., 1: 147-156.
DINNEL, P.A., LINK, J.M., STOBER, Q.J., LETOURNEAU, M.W., & ROBERTS, W.E. (1989) Comparative sensitivity of sea urchin sperm bioassays to metals and pesticides. Arch. environ. Contam. Toxicol., 18: 748-755.
DOELMAN, P., NIEBOER, G., SCHROOTEN, J., & VISSER, M. (1984)
Antagonistic and synergistic toxic effects of Pb and Cd in a simple foodchain: Nematodes feeding on bacteria or fungi. Bull. environ.
Contam. Toxicol., 32: 717-723.
DONGMANN, G. & NURNBERG, H.W. (1982) Observations with Thalassiosira rotula (Meunier) on the toxicity and accumulation of cadmium and nickel. Ecotoxicol. environ. Saf., 6: 535-544.
DOUBEN, P.E.T. (1989a) Uptake and elimination of waterborne cadmium by the fish Noemacheilus barbatulus L. (stone loach). Arch. environ.
Contam. Toxicol., 18: 576-586.
DOUBEN, P.E.T. (1989b) Metabolic rate and uptake and loss of cadmium from food by the fish Noemacheilus barbatulus L. (stone loach).
Environ. Pollut., 59: 177-202.
DRESCHER, H.E., HARMS, U., & HUSCHENBETH. E. (1977) Organochlorines and heavy metals in the harbour seal Phoca vitulina from the German North Sea coast. Mar. Biol., 41: 99-106.
EATON, J.G., MCKIM, J.M., & HOLCOMBE, G.W. (1978) Metal toxicity to embryos and larvae of seven freshwater fish species - I. Cadmium.
Bull. environ. Contam. Toxicol., 19: 95-103.
EISLER, R. (1971) Cadmium poisoning in Fundulus heteroclitus (Pisces: Cyprinodontidae) and other marine organism. J. Fish Res.
Board Can., 28: 1225-1234.
EISLER, R. (1985) Cadmium hazards to fish, wildlife and invertebrates:
A synoptic review, Washington, DC, US Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service (Biological Report No. 85).
EISLER, R. & HENNEKEY, R.J. (1977) Acute toxicities of Cd2+, Cr+6, Hg2+, Ni2+ and Zn2+ to estuarine macrofauna. Arch. environ.
Contam. Toxicol., 6: 315-323.
EISLER, R., ZAROOGIAN, G.E., & HENNEKEY, R.J. (1972) Cadmium uptake by marine organisms. J. Fish Res. Board. Can., 29: 1367-1369.
ELLIOT, N.G., SWAIN, R., & RITZ, D.A. (1985) The influence of cyclic exposure on the accumulation of heavy metals by Mytilus edulis
planulatus (Lamarck). Mar. environ. Res., 15: 17-30.
ERIKSSON, J.E. (1988) The effects of clay, organic matter and time on adsorption and plant uptake of cadmium added to the soil. Water Air Soil Pollut., 40: 359-373.
FALCONER, C.R., DAVIES, I.M., & TOPPING, G. (1983) Trace metals in the common porpoise, Phocoena phocoena. Mar. environ. Res., 8: 119-127.
FERARD, J.F., JOUANY, J.M., TRUHAUT, R., & VASSEUR, P. (1983)
Accumulation of cadmium in a freshwater food chain experimental model.
Ecotoxicol. environ. Saf., 7: 43-52.
FINLAYSON, B.J. & VERRUE, K.M. (1982) Toxicities of copper, zinc, and cadmium mixtures to juvenile chinook salmon. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc., 111: 645-650.
FLATAU, G.N., CLEMENT, R.L., GAUTHIER, M.J., & LAUMOND, F.M. (1987) Adaptation to cadmium in a sensitive marine pseudomonad. Environ.
Technol. Lett, 8: 641-646.
FLATAU, G.N., CLEMENT, R.L., & GAUTHIER, M.J. (1988) Uptake of cadmium by marine bacteria. Prog. Oceanogr., 21: 181-188.
FLEISCHER, M., SAROFIM, A.F., FASSETT, D.W., HAMMOND, P., SHACKLETTE, H.T., NISBET, I.C.T., & EPSTEIN, S. (1974) Environmental impact of cadmium: a review by the Panel on Hazardous Trace Substances. Environ.
Health Perspect., 5: 253-323.
FLIK, G., VAN DE WINKEL, J.G.J., PART, P., WENDELAAR BONGA, S.E., &
LOCK, R.A.C. (1987) Calmodulin mediated cadmium inhibition of phosphodiesterase activity. Arch. Toxicol., 59: 352-359.
FORSTNER, U. (1980) Cadmium in the environment, Part I. In: Nriagu, J.O., ed. Cadmium in polluted sediments, New York, Chichester, John Wiley & Sons, pp. 305-363.
FRANCIS, P.C., BIRGE, W.J., & BLACK, J.A. (1984) Effects of
cadmium-enriched sediment on fish and amphibian embryo-larval stages.
Ecotoxicol. environ. Saf., 8: 378-387.
FRANK, P.M. & ROBERTSON, P.B. (1979) The influence of salinity on toxicity of cadmium and chromium to the blue crab, Callinectes
sapidus. Bull. environ. Contam. Toxicol., 21: 74-78.
FRIBERG, L., ELINDER, C.G., KJELLSTRÖM, T., & NORDBERG, G.F. (1986) Cadmium and health, a toxicological and epidemiological appraisal.
Vol. II. Effects and response, Cleveland, Ohio, CRC Press, 303 pp.
GESAMP (1984) IMO/FAO/UNESCO/WMO/IAEA/UN/UNEP Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Pollution: Report of the
fourteenth session, Vienna, 26-30 March, 1984, Vienna, International Atomic Energy Agency (Reports and Studies No. 21).
GESAMP (1985) IMO/FAO/UNESCO/WHO/IAEA/UN/UNEP Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Pollution: Atmospheric transport of contaminants into the Mediterranean region, Athens, Geneva, World Meteorological Association (Reports and Studies No. 26).
GESAMP (1987) IMO/FAO/UNESCO/WMO/WHO/IAEA/UN/UNEP Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Pollution: Report of the seventeenth session, Rome, Geneva, World Health Organization (Reports and Studies No. 31).
GIATTINA, J.D. & GARTON, R.R. (1983) A review of the
preference-avoidance responses of fishes to aquatic contaminants.
Residue Rev., 87: 43-90.
GIESY, J.P., LEVERSEE, G.J., & WILLIAMS, D.R. (1977) Effects of naturally occurring aquatic organic fractions on cadmium toxicity to
Simocephalus serrulatus (Daphnidae) and Gambusia affinis (Poeciliidae). Water Res., 11: 1013-1020.
GILL, T.S. & PANT, J.C. (1983) Cadmium toxicity: inducement of changes in blood and tissue metabolites in fish. Toxicol. Lett., 18: 195-200.
GISH, C.D. & CHRISTENSEN, R.E. (1973) Cadmium, nickel, lead and zinc in earthworms from roadside soil. Environ. Sci. Technol., 7:
1060-1062.
GOTTOFREY, J. (1990) The disposition of cadmium, nickel, mercury and methylmercury in fish and effects of lipophilic metal chelation, Uppsala, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology (Thesis).
GOTTOFREY, J., BJORKLUND, I., & TJALVE, H. (1988) Effects of sodium isoproylxanthate, potassium amylxanthate and sodium
diethyldithiocarbamate on the uptake and disposition of cadmium in the brown trout ( Salmo trutta). Aquat. Toxicol., 12: 171-184.
GUY, R.D. & ROSS KEAN, A. (1980) Algae as a chemical speciation monitor. I. A comparison of algal growth and computer calculated speciation. Water Res., 14: 891-899.
HAIGHT, M., MUDRY, T., & PASTERNAK, J. (1982) Toxicity of seven heavy metals on Panagrellus silusiae: The efficacy of the free-living
nematode as an in vivo toxicological bioassay. Nematologica, 28: 1-11.
HALE, J.G. (1977) Toxicity of metal mining wastes. Bull. environ.
Contam. Toxicol., 17: 66-73.
HALL, W.S., PAULSON, R.L., HALL, L.W., & BURTON, D.T. (1986) Acute toxicity of cadmium and sodium pentachlorophenate to Daphnids and fish. Bull. environ. Contam. Toxicol., 37: 308-316.
HAMANAKA, T., ITOO, T., & MISHIMA, S. (1982) Age related change and distribution of cadmium and zinc concentrations in the stellar sea lion ( Eumetopias jubata) from the coast of Hokkaido, Japan. Mar.
Pollut. Bull., 13: 57-61.
HAMILTON, S.J. & MEHRLE, P.M. (1986) Metallothionein in fish: review of its importance in assessing stress from metal contaminants. Trans.
Am. Fish. Soc., 115: 596-609.
HARDISTY, M.W., HUGGINS, R.J., KARTAR, S., & SAINSBURY, M. (1974a) Ecological implications of heavy metal in fish from the Severn Estuary. Mar. Pollut. Bull., 5: 12-15.
HARDISTY, M.W., KARTAR, S., & SAINSBURY, M. (1974b) Dietary habits and heavy metal concentrations in fish from the Severn Estuary and Bristol Channel. Mar. Pollut. Bull., 5: 61-63.
HARDY, J.T., SCHMIDT, R.L., & APTS, C.W. (1981) Marine sediment and interstitial water: effects on bioavailability of cadmium to gills of the clam Protothaca staminea. Bull. environ. Contam. Toxicol., 27:
798-805.
HARDY, J.T., SULLIVAN, M.F., CRECELIUS, E.A., & APTS, C.W. (1984)
Transfer of cadmium in phytoplankton-oyster-mouse food chain. Arch.
environ. Contam. Toxicol., 13: 419-425.
HARKOV, R., CLARKE, B., & BRENNAN, E. (1979) Cadmium contamination may modify response of tomato to atmospheric ozone. J. Air Pollut. Control Assoc., 29: 1247-1249.
HARRISON, S.E. & KLAVERKAMP, J.F. (1989) Uptake, elimination and tissue distribution of dietary and aqueous cadmium by rainbow trout ( Salmo gairdneri Richardson) and lake whitefish ( Coregonus
clupeaformis Mitchill). Environ. Toxicol. Chem., 8: 87-97.
HART, B.A. & SCAIFE, B.D. (1977) Toxicity and bioaccumulation of cadmium in Chlorella pyrenoidosa. Environ. Res., 14: 401-413.
HARTENSTEIN, R., NEUHAUSER, E.F., & COLLIER, J. (1980) Accumulation of heavy metals in the earthworm Eisenia foetida. J. environ. Qual., 9:
23-26.
HARTMAN, L.M. (1974) A preliminary report: Fungal flora of the soil as conditioned by varying concentrations of heavy metals. Am. J. Bot., 61: 23 (Abstract).
HARTWELL, S.I., JIN, J.H., CHERRY, D.S., & CAIRNS, J. (1989) Toxicity versus avoidance response of golden shiner, Notemigonus crysoleucas, to five metals. J. Fish Biol., 35: 447-456.
HATAKEYAMA, S. (1987) Chronic effects of Cd on reproduction of
Polypedilum nubifer (Chironomidae) through water and food. Environ.
Pollut., 48: 249-261.
HATAKEYAMA, S. & YASUNO, M. (1987) Chronic effects of Cd on the reproduction of the guppy ( Poecilia reticulata) through
Cd-accumulated midge larvae ( Chironomus yoshimatsui). Ecotoxicol.
environ. Saf., 14: 191-207.
HEINZ, G.H., HASELTINE, S.D., & SILEO, L. (1983) Altered avoidance behavior of black ducks fed cadmium. Environ. Toxicol. Chem., 2:
419-421.
HILL, E.F. & CAMARDESE, M.B. (1986) Lethal dietary toxicities of
environmental contaminants and pesticides to Coturnix, Washington, DC, US Department of Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service (Fish and
Wildlife Technical Report No. 2).
HILL, E.F., HEATH, R.G., SPANN, J.W., & WILLIAMS, J.D. (1975) Lethal dietary toxicities of environmental pollutants to birds, Washington, DC, US Department of Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service (Special Scientific Report, Wildlife No. 191).
HIRAOKA, Y. & OKUDA, H. (1984) Time course study of occurrence of anomalies in medaka's centrum by cadmium or fenitrothion emulsion.
Bull. environ. Contam. Toxicol., 32: 693-697.
HIRATA, M. (1981) Annaka: Land polluted mainly by fumes and dust from a zinc smelter. In: Kitagishi, K. & Gamare, I., ed. Heavy metal
HIRATA, M. (1981) Annaka: Land polluted mainly by fumes and dust from a zinc smelter. In: Kitagishi, K. & Gamare, I., ed. Heavy metal