Recommendations to mitigate environmental impacts

Regulations, policies, standards, guidelines and procedures should be established and applied by countries in order to minimise potential environmental impacts and protect human health. The following are some recommendations that should be considered in the application of the environmental and health management system in terms of discharges to water, air emissions, noise pollution and solid wastes.

3.3.11.1 Recommendation for discharging and spills in the marine environment Patin (1999, p.393) outlined the stages that should be included in the environmental control and management system:

 Determine the general goals and priorities of environmental protection; selecting environmental requirements and standards to achieve the goals;

 Describe and assess the background characteristics of the environment and establish a regulatory base for the protection;

 Identify and analyse environmental hazards and impacts at different stages of the project;

 Evaluate the possible consequences and risks of different impacts and establish measures to reduce these risks;

 Perform ecological monitoring and implement the most effective measures and methodology available.

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Similarly, Jafarinejad (2017, p.108) citied E&P forum/UNEP that environmental legislation requires the following factors:

 Applicable internationals laws, guidelines and regulations;  Clear methods for decisions on activities and projects;  Clear determination of responsibilities and liabilities;  Clear and applicable methods of monitoring;

 Motivated enforcement authorities;

 Availability of consultation and appeal procedures;

In terms of the international requirements and regulations, Patin (1999, p.393) classified the standards into two groups: the first group controls the volume and composition of discharges into the marine environment; the second group determines the extent of change in marine environment. The most famous international environmental conventions are: the international convention for the prevention of pollution from ships (MARPOL); the convention for the protection of the marine environment of the north east atlantic (OSPAR).

Oil spill responses include three phases: protection, recovery, and cleanup. In most responses, the protection and the recovery are immediate targets; protection involves keeping the oil out of a habitat and or reducing the amount that enters, while the recovery includes removing the oil from the sea surface. However, the main objective of the cleanup phase is to remove the oil spill from coastline habitats (API and NOAA, cited in Jafarinejad, 2017, p.118).

3.3.11.2 Recommendations for air emissions

As discussed in 3.3.6, the main sources of air pollution are generated from flaring and combustion engines used for power generation. In terms of reduction of emissions from flaring, Indriani, (2005) and the European Commission and Joint Research Centre (2013) citied in Jafarinejad, (2017, p.179), highlighted the following methods:

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 Implementing a flare gas recovery system by considering correct designing of the plant.

 Using flaring only as a safety system rather than in normal operations such as start-up, shutdown, and emergency.

 Working on designing the parameters of flares, such as pressure, height, type of flare tips, etc., to create smokeless operation and ensure that efficient combustion of excess gases is achieved during flaring.

 Reinjection of the gas into the reservoir in order to increase the pressure within the reservoir and enhance the flow of oil.

 Transport the gas by pipelines to end users; use a natural gas liquid (NGL) recovery system, or use a gas to liquid (GTL) system.

HARC (2015) discussed several solutions such as: (1) gas to liquids process to create

synthetic crude ethanol, methanol or formalin; (2) using flare gas to produce a nitrogen fertilizer; (3) turbines to produce electricity instead of diesel; and (4) converting gas to

LNG (liquefied natural gas) to power and manage the drilling operations.

In terms of the combustion of gases in the gas turbine, Mazzetti et al. (2014) mentioned that the most effective method to improve energy efficiency on offshore platforms is by using compact bottom cycles to the waste heat from the gas turbines with potential of CO2 reduction up to 25%. EIIP (1999) noted that for gas turbines, selective catalytic reduction can be used. Accenture (2012) mentioned that, electricity from the land-based grid can be used for offshore platforms rather than gas turbines, in order to reduce CO2 emissions, and improve energy efficiency as well as utilize grid based renewable energy. In terms of the effect of CFC and HCFC gases on the ozone layer, Bolaji and Huan (2013) suggested the use of natural refrigerants as a replacement for CFC and HCFC. Natural refrigerants, which can be used as alternatives, include water, ammonia and hydrocarbon; these refrigerants have zero ozone depletion impact with a lower global potential impact compared to CFC and HCFC.

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Gas flaring and venting can be reduced and monitored through national or international standards and regulation. The convention for the protection of the marine environment of the north east atlantic (OSPAR) and global gas flaring reduction partnership (GGFR) both assist governments and countries in reducing flaring by providing guidelines (Worldbank, 2004). The American Petroleum Institute (API) has developed a methodology and guidelines for estimating GHG emission on oil and gas industry; Campbell et al. (2004) has recommended estimating gas flaring and venting based on the API.

3.3.11.3 Recommendation for marine noise

As aforementioned the impact of noise classified into effects on mammals and offshore workers. In terms of mitigating the noise effects on marine life and mammals, Richardson et al. (1995, p.417) provided general approaches that can be used and applied to mitigate the noise impacts on marine mammals. The first approach is to select the appropriate equipment and facilities. He stated that if the offshore area is important to ocean mammals, then the noise emission should be studied when determining which type of platform to use; he also emphasisesd the importance of equipment selection, stating that several equipment types can often perform the same required function, therefore, the less noisy equipment should be selected. The second approach includes adjusting the operational procedure to reduce the potential effects; for instance, some countries require visual monitoring for the presence of marine life, and postponing any activities when mammals are detected. Other approaches are related to adjusting the seasonal and hourly timing of noisy activities to avoid periods when mammals are sensitive.

In terms of the effects on offshore workers, Bahadori (2014, p.217) noted that noise control is very important to reduce the effects on workers and environments. He stated several means that can be considered in this regard:

 Reduction of the noise at source by redesign or replacing the noisy equipment; if not, mechanical modification or isolation can be considered.

 Proper maintenance and lubrication can mitigate the noise level.

 Increasing the distance between the workers and noisy equipment or installing barriers between the source of the noise and workers.

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 Reducing the length of exposure to the noise source by, for instance, considering job rotation.

 Educating the workers in terms of effects of exposure to noise for a long time; providing them with means of protection, such as ear protection.

Bahadori (2014, p.223) further, pointed out the importance of local regulations to environmental noise, which should include noise limits and techniques for measurement. The supplier or vendor should always provide the equipment noise limitation sheets, which should meet the acceptable level of noise based on the regulations or international standards. BOMEL LTD (2002) specified the noise level of a specific operation area offshore, as shown in the following table 6.

Table 6 Noise limit of offshore area

Specific Area Noise limit (dBA)

Workshops 70

General stores 70

Control rooms 55

Offices 55

Laboratories 55

Other 12 hour shift 88

Other 8 hour shift ₉₀

3.3.11.4 Recommendation for solid wastes (waste management plan)

Wastes here are related to the solid and liquid surplus from service industries, manufacturing and treatment plants; wastewater and exhaust gases are not considered to be waste (Pollution Control Act citied in Haugan et al., 2013, p.2). Discharges to air and water can be considered as pollution, not waste.

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A waste management plan plays an important role in achieving sustainable development by reducing the environmental impacts and human health issues. Waste, especially in the oil and gas sectors, contains chemical substances and hazardous materials with potential effects on the environment and human health. From an economical point of view, prevention and minimising the production of waste is important in ensuring that the cost of waste generation by facilities does not exceed the value of using them. DEFRA (2011) mentioned that a green economy can be achieved and supported by reducing environmental damage, increasing energy security and sustainably managing natural assets. DEFRA (2011) further, emphasised that the direct greenhouse gas emissions from biodegradable waste in landfill are significant; therefore, energy recovery from wastes as an option can reduce the carbon impact and provide economic benefits. Renewable energy can also be derived from waste such as bio-methane, which can produce a greenhouse gas saving of between 66% and 92% compared to natural gas. Therefore, the need for sustainable waste plans and policies are important to protect the environment and human health.

3.3.11.6 Waste management hierarchy

The waste management hierarchy classifies the waste management option according to what is the most preferred option for the environment. The following hierarchy (Figure 24) should be considered when applying the waste management plan: (1) prevention; (2) source reduction or decreasing; (3) re-use; (4) recycling and recovery; (5) treatment; and (6) disposal (landfill). Therefore, when waste generation cannot be avoided, priority is given to preparing it to re-use, then recycling, then treatment and finally disposal. (Haugan et al, 2013; Jafarinejad, 2017; Borthwick, 1997).

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Figure 24 Waste management hierarchy (Jafarinejad, 2017; DEFRA, 2011)

3.3.11.6.1 Prevention

Waste management systems can begins with waste prevention. Prevention can be considered in the design at the conceptual stage, or during the planning process. For example, using bolting design connection offshore instead of cutting and welding, which generates a lot of waste and hazards. Jafarinejad (2017, p.101) stated that pollution prevention can be done by eliminating of operation practices that result in discharges into the environment.

3.3.11.6.2 Source reduction (minimising)

In this approach, during the conceptual stage of the project the activity is designed or selected to generate the minimum volume of waste or toxicity. Jafarinejad (2017, p.102), citing the E&P forum, suggested that selection and substitution that result in producing less toxic and waste should be considered. For instance, selection of additives that don’t contain a high level of toxic compound is preferred. In a heat exchanger, replacing chromates with a low toxic option such as phosphate is an example of reduction.

3.3.11.6.3 Re use

The opportunities for re using waste materials should start at the conceptual stage; the designer should consider this approach in his design, debating the flexibility of re using

Prevention Source Reduction Re‐use Recycling and recovery Treatment Disposal

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the same materials in their original shape. API 5E (1997) stated that the contractor or operator should consider reclaiming the waste materials, either in activities onsite or outside in other industries.

3.3.11.6.4 Recycling and recovery

Converting waste materials into usable materials is referred to as recycling, whereas extracting energy from waste materials is called recovery. Examples of materials for recycling include: used oil, hydraulic fluids, paper, plastic and metals. Recovery of hydrocarbons can be achieved onsite at production facilities or offsite, such as via recovery oil from produced water and separator sludges (API 5E, 1997; Jafarinejad, 2017, p.104).

3.3.11.6.5 Treatment

After source reduction, re use and recycling options, treatment as a solution should be considered. The main purpose of treatment is detoxification of waste materials through a specific process. Techniques such as filtration, centrifugation, thermal treatment and chemical treatment can be used to reduce the level of toxicity in wastes materials (API E5, 1997; Jafarinejad, 2017, p.105).

3.3.11.6.6 Disposal

All wastes that cannot be re used, recycled or recovered, will be disposed of. Waste disposal methods will be evaluated based on the type of waste, regulatory requirements and restrictions, environmental considerations, location, engineering limitations, and economics. Techniques such as secure landfill, surface discharges (onshore and offshore) and burial among others are reported in the oil and gas industry (Jafarinejad, 2017, p.305).

3.3.11.6.7 Considerations in managing waste offshore

The following points should be considered when a waste management plan is created or applied to any project:

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 The roles and responsibilities should be clear for all parties: offshore platform manager (client), contractor and subcontractors.

 The waste management plan should include a clear system to segregate the hazardous and non-hazardous materials. Hazardous waste includes such materials as medical waste, chemicals, paints, batteries, flammable waste and so on; non hazardous waste includes domestic waste from accommodation platforms (foods, cans, papers etc.), scrap metals, and so on.

 Packing and labelling systems should be adhered to in order to separate hazardous and non hazardous waste. Segregation should consider recyclable items, reused items, recovery item and items for disposal.