Only Georgia has a separate article about its experiences under Reconstruction. The other state names below link to a specific section in the state history article about the Reconstruction era.
Reconstruction in each State Declared Secession Joined Confederacy Readmitted to Congress Democratic Party Establishes Control
South Carolina December 20, 1860 February 4, 1861 July 9, 1868 April 11, 1877 Mississippi January 9, 1861 February 4, 1861 February 23, 1870 January 4, 1876 Florida January 10, 1861 February 4, 1861 June 25, 1868 January 2, 1877 Alabama January 11, 1861 February 4, 1861 July 14, 1868 November 16, 1874 Georgia January 19, 1861 February 4, 1861 July 15, 1870 November 1, 1871 Louisiana January 26, 1861 February 4, 1861 June 25, 1868 (or July 9) January 2, 1877 Texas February 1, 1861 March 2, 1861 March 30, 1870 January 14, 1873 Virginia April 17, 1861 May 7, 1861 January 26, 1870 October 5, 1869 Arkansas May 6, 1861 May 18, 1861 June 22, 1868 November 10, 1874 North Carolina May 21, 1861 May 16, 1861 July 4, 1868 November 28, 1870 Tennessee June 8, 1861 May 16, 1861 July 24, 1866 October 4, 1869
Notes
[1] Brands (2012), Grant Takes On The Klan, American History, p. 46. [2] Brands (2012), Grant Takes On The Klan, American History, p. 44. [3]
[3] Blair (2005), p. 393.
[4] Eric Foner, Reconstruction: America's unfinished revolution, 1863-1877 (1988) p. 604 online. (http://books.google.com/ books?id=cwVkgrvctCcC&pg=PA604&dq="What+remains+certain+is+that+Reconstruction+failed,&hl=en&sa=X&
ei=cDVbT4OODo2nsALDmNnEDQ&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q="What remains certain is that Reconstruction failed,&f=false) [5]
[5] Except in Tennessee, where anti-Johnson Republicans already were in control. [6] Not including Virginia.
[7] Bruce E. Baker, What Reconstruction Meant: Historical Memory in the American South (2007). [8]
[8] A somewhat similar "reconstruction" process took place in the border states of Missouri and Kentucky, but they had never left the Union and were never controlled by Congress.
[9] Nicholas Lemann, Redemption: The Last Battle of the Civil War (2007), p. 75–77.
[10] Thomas B. Alexander, "Persistent Whiggery in the Confederate South, 1860–1877", Journal of Southern History, Vol. 27, No. 3 (August 1961), p. 305–329 in JSTOR. (http://www.jstor.org/stable/2205211)
[11] Allen W. Trelease, "Republican Reconstruction in North Carolina: A Roll-Call Analysis of the State House of Representatives, 1866–1870",
Journal of Southern History, Vol. XLII, No. 3 (August 1976).
[12] Paskoff, "Measures of War: A Quantitative Examination of the Civil War's Destructiveness in the Confederacy, Civil War History 54.1" [13] William B. Hesseltine, A History of the South, 1607–1936 (1936), pp. 573–574.
[14] John Samuel Ezell, The South since 1865 (1963), pp. 27–28. [15]
[15] Direct costs for the Confederacy are based on the value of the dollar in 1860. [16] Donald, Civil War and Reconstruction (2001), ch. 26.
[17] Simpson (2009); William C. Harris, With Charity for All: Lincoln and the Restoration of the Union (1999). [18]
[18] All blacks would be counted in 1870, whether or not they were citizens. [19] ; Hans Trefouse, The Radical republicans (1975).
[20] Donald, Civil War and Reconstruction (2001); Hans L. Trefousse, Andrew Johnson: A Biography (1989). [21] Donald, Civil War and Reconstruction (2001), ch. 26–27.
[22] Donald, Civil War and Reconstruction (2001), ch. 28–29. [23] Donald, Civil War and Reconstruction (2001), ch. 29.
[24] Donald, Civil War and Reconstruction (2001), ch. 30.
[25] Abraham Lincoln, Second Inaugural Address, Saturday, March 4, 1865. (http://www.theatlantic.com/issues/99sep/9909lincaddress. htm)
[26] Harris, With Charity for All (1999). [27] Foner 1988, pp. 273–276.
[28] William Gienapp, Abraham Lincoln and Civil War America (2002), p. 155. [29]
[29] Patton, p. 126. [30]
[30] Johnson to Gov. William L. Sharkey, August 1865 quoted in Franklin (1961), p. 42. [31] Donald, Charles Sumner, p. 201.
[32]
[32] Ayers, p. 418.
[33] James D. Anderson, The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860–1935, pp. 244–245. [34]
[34] Randall and Donald, p. 581.
[35] Eric Foner, Freedom's lawmakers: a directory of Black officeholders during Reconstruction (1993).
[36] Ellen DuBois, Feminism and suffrage: The emergence of an independent women's movement in America (1978). [37] Glenn Feldman, The Disfranchisement Myth: Poor Whites and Suffrage Restriction in Alabama (2004), p. 136. [38] Cimbala, Miller, and Syrette (2002), An uncommon time: the Civil War and the northern home front, pp. 285, 305. [39] Wagner, Gallagher, and McPherson, The Library of Congress Civil War Desk Reference, pp. 735-736.
[40] Williams (2006), "Doing Less" and "Doing More", pp. 54–59. [41] Trefousse (1991), Historical dictionary of reconstruction, p. viiii. [42] Catton (1963), Terrible Swift Sword, pp. 365–367, 461–468.
[43] Guelzo (2004), Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation: The End of Slavery in America, p. 1. [44] Sick from Freedom, First Edition, New York, Oxford University Press, 2012.
[45] Stauffer (2008), Giants, p. 279.
[46] Peterson (1995) Lincoln in American Memory, pp. 38–41. [47] McCarthy (1901), Lincoln's plan of Reconstruction, p. 76. [48] Stauffer (2008), Giants, p. 280.
[49]
[49] Hunter, "To 'Joy My Freedom", p. 34.
[50] 'Black Tax' Credit. (http://www.snopes.com/business/taxes/blacktax.asp)
[51] Belz (1998), Abraham Lincoln, constitutionalism, and equal rights in the Civil War era, pp. 138, 141, 145. [52] Rawley (2003), Abraham Lincoln and a nation worth fighting for. p. 205.
[53] McFeely (2002), Grant: A Biography, pp. 198–207.
[54] William C. Harris, With Charity for All: Lincoln and the Restoration of the Union (1997). [55]
[55] Trefousse c.1989. [56]
[56] McFeely-Woodward (1974), p. 125.
[57] Barney, William L., The Passage of the Republic: An Interdisciplinary History of Nineteenth-Century America (1987), p. 245. [58] Donald, Civil War and Reconstruction (2001), ch. 31.
[59] Oberholtzer 1:128–9. [60]
[60] Donald (2001), p. 527. [61]
[61] Hunter, p. 67.
[62] Barney, The Passage of the Republic, p. 251, pp. 284–286.
[63] Report on the Condition of the South / Schurz, Carl, 1829–1906 (http://infomotions.com/etexts/gutenberg/dirs/etext05/cnsth10.htm): [64]
[64] Jones, "Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow", p. 70. [65] Rhodes, History 6:65–66.
[66] See (http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/reconstruction/section4/section4_11.html) based America's Reconstruction: People and Politics After the Civil War, by Eric Foner and Olivia Mahoney. Online source is: (http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/reconstruction/credits.html) [67] Rhodes, History 6:68.
[68]
[68] Trefousse 1989.
[69] Badeau (1887) Grant in Peace, pp. 46, 57.
[70] Fellman (2003), pp. 301–310; Foner (1988) entitles his chapter 6, "The Making of Radical Reconstruction." Trefousse (1968) and Hyman (1967) put "Radical Republicans" in the title. Benedict (1974) argues the Radical Republicans were conservative on many other issues. [71] http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=llsl&fileName=014/llsl014.db&recNum=459
[72]
[72] Foner 1988, ch. 6. [73] Foner 1988, ch. 6–7. [74] Foner 1988, pp. 274–275.
[75] Randolph Campbell, Gone to Texas 2003, p. 276. [76]
[76] Rhodes (1920) v 6, p. 199.
[77] Brogan (1985), The Penguin History of the United States of America, p. 357–358; Smith (2001), Grant, pp. 455–457.
[78] Simpson, Brooks D. "Ulysses S. Grant and the Freedmen’s Bureau", in The Freedmen’s Bureau and Reconstruction: Reconsiderations, edited by Paul A. Cimbala and Randall M. Miller. New York: Fordham University Press, 1999.
[79]
[79] Smith (2001).
[80] Grant, pp. 437–453, 458–460.
[81] Simon (1967), Papers of Ulysses S. Grant, Vol. 19, pp. xiii. [82]
[82] Norris-Milligin-Faulk, p. 272.
[83] David Quigley, "Constitutional Revision and the City: The Enforcement Acts and Urban America, 1870–1894," Journal of Policy History,
January 2008, Vol. 20, Issue 1, pp. 64–75. [84]
[84] Blair (2005), p. 400. [85] Smith (2001), Grant, p. 547. [86] Franklin (1961), pp. 168–173.
[87] Georgia had a Republican governor and legislature, but the Republican hegemony was tenuous at best, and Democrats continued to win presidential elections there. See 1834 March 28 article in This Day in Georgia History (http://georgiainfo.galileo.usg.edu/tdgh-mar/mar28. htm) compiled by Ed Jackson and Charles Pou; cf. Rufus Bullock.
[88] Foner 1988, ch. 7; Foner, Freedom's Lawmakers, introduction. [89]
[89] Rhodes (1920) v 6 p. 199; no report on Arkansas.
[90] The statistics of the population of the United States, embracing the tables of race, nationality, sex, selected ages, and occupations. To which are added the statistics of school attendance and illiteracy, of schools, libraries, newspapers, periodicals, churches, pauperism and crime, and of areas, families, and dwellings Table 1. (http://www2.census.gov/prod2/decennial/documents/1870a-03.pdf) United States Census Bureau. Last Retrieved 2007-10-20
[91] E. Foner, Reconstruction: America's unfinished revolution, 1863–1877 (NY: Harper & Row, 1988), pp. 354–5 [92] W. E. B. Du Bois, Black Reconstruction in America, 1860–1880 (1935).
[93] James D. Anderson, The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860–1935 (1988), pp. 6–15. [94] Foner 365–8
[95]
[95] Franklin 139 [96]
[96] Lynch 1913.
[97] B. D. Mayberry, A Century of Agriculture in the 1890 Land Grant Institutions and Tuskegee University, 1890–1990 (1992). [98] [98] Foner 387. [99] Franklin pp 141–48; Summers 1984 [100] [100] Stover 1955. [101] Franklin pp. 147–8. [102] [102] Foner 375. [103] [103] Foner 376.
[104] http://books.google.com/books?id=cxKP38rdvHkC&pg=PA2&dq=John+Schreiner+Reynolds,+Reconstruction+in+South+ Carolina,&ei=GAvLRp-ZOYqa6gLS0N29Cg#PPA329,M1
[105] http://books.google.com/books?id=Idw0AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA13&dq=Jacob+Harry+Hollander,+Studies+in+State+Taxation+ with+Particular+Reference+to+the+Southern+States,&ei=hBDLRs23C4iS6wL4wqGCDw#PPA192,M1
[106] Foner 415–16
[107] Marek D. Steedman, "Resistance, Rebirth, and Redemption: The Rhetoric of White Supremacy in Post-Civil War Louisiana," Historical Reflections, Spring 2009, Vol. 35#1, pp. 97–113.
[108]
[108] Perman 1984, p. 6.
[109] T. Harry Williams, An Analysis of Some Reconstruction Attitudes," Journal of Southern History Vol. 12, No. 4 (November 1946), pp. 469–486 in JSTOR. (http://www.jstor.org/stable/2197687)
[110] Walter Lynwood Fleming, Documentary History of the Reconstruction (Cleveland, 1907), II, pp. 328–9.
[111]
[111] Oberholtzer, vol. 1, p. 485. [112] Trelease, White Terror.
[113] McFeely (2002), Grant: A Biography, pp. 420–422.
[114] J. W. Schuckers, The Life and Public Services of Salmon Portland Chase, (1874), p. 585; letter of May 30, 1868 to August Belmont. [115] [115] McPherson 1975. [116] Foner 537–41. [117] Foner 374–5. [118] [118] Lynch 1915 [119] [119] Perman 1984, ch. 3. [120] [120] Foner, ch. 9.
[121] Nicholas Lemann, Redemption: The Last Battle of the Civil War, New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, Pbk. 2007, pp. 15–21. [122] US Senate Journal January 13, 1875, pp. 106–107.
[123]
[123] Foner p. 443. [124] Foner pp. 545–7.
[125] Danielle Alexander, "Forty Acres and a Mule: The Ruined Hope of Reconstruction", Humanities, January/February 2004, vol. 25/No. 1 (http://www.neh.gov/news/humanities/2004-01/reconstruction.html). Retrieved 2008-04-14.
[127] George C. Rable, But There Was No Peace: The Role of Violence in the Politics of Reconstruction, Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1984, p. 132.
[128]
[128] Foner ch. 11.
[129] Nicholas Lemann, Redemption: The Last Battle of the Civil War, New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, paperback, 2007, p. 174. [130]
[130] Foner 604.
[131] Woodward (1966), Reunion and reaction: the compromise of 1877 and the end of reconstruction, pp. 3–15 [132] Nell Irvin Painter, Exodusters: Black Migration to Kansas After Reconstruction (1976)
[133] James T. Moore, "Black Militancy in Readjuster Virginia, 1879–1883," Journal of Southern History, Vol. 41, No. 2 (May 1975), pp. 167–186 in JSTOR. (http://www.jstor.org/stable/2206012)
[134] Fletcher M. Green, "Walter Lynwood Fleming: Historian of Reconstruction," The Journal of Southern History, Vol. 2, No. 4 (November 1936), pp. 497–521.
[135] Louis R. Harlan, Booker T. Washington in Perspective (1988), p. 164; A. A. Taylor, "Historians of the Reconstruction," The Journal of Negro History, Vol. 23, No. 1 (January 1938), pp. 16–34.
[136] T. Harry Williams, An Analysis of Some Reconstruction Attitudes," Journal of Southern History Vol. 12, No. 4 (November 1946), pp. 469–486 in JSTOR (http://www.jstor.org/stable/2197687) quote at p. 473
[137]
[137] Williams 1946, p. 470.
[138] Foner 1982; Montgomery, vii–ix. [139] Williams, 469; Foner p. xxii.
[140] Glenn Feldman, The Disfranchisement Myth: Poor Whites and Suffrage Restriction in Alabama, Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2004, pp. 135–136.
[141] Richard H. Pildes, "Democracy, Anti-Democracy, and the Canon", Constitutional Commentary, Vol. 17, 2000, p. 27 (http://papers.ssrn. com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=224731). Retrieved 2008-03-15.
[142] Foner, A Short History of Reconstruction (1990), p. 255. Foner adds, "What remains certain is that Reconstruction failed, and that for blacks its failure was a disaster whose magnitude cannot be obscured by the accomplishments that endured." p. 256.
[143] Although Grant and Attorney General Amos T. Akerman set up a strong legal system to protect African Americans, the Department of Justice did not set up a permanent Civil Rights Division until the Civil Rights Act of 1957. McFeely (2002), Grant: A Biography, pp. 372–373; 424, 425.
[144] Bruce E. Baker, What Reconstruction Meant: Historical Memory in the American South (2007); Thomas J. Brown, ed. Reconstructions: New Perspectives on the Postbellum United States (2008).
[145] See, e.g., Orville Vernon Burton, The Age of Lincoln (2007), p. 312.
[146] See Vernon Burton, "Civil War and Reconstruction," in William L. Barney (ed.), A Companion to 19th-century America (2006), pp. 54–56. [147] Nicole Etcheson, "Reconstruction and the Making of a Free-Labor South," Reviews in American History, Vol. 37, No. 2, June 2009. [148] Derek W. Frisby points to, "Reconstruction's failure to appreciate the challenges of Southern Unionism and incorporate these loyal
Southerners into a strategy that would positively affect the character of the peace." Frisby, "A Victory Spoiled: West Tennessee Unionists during Reconstruction," in Paul Cimballa, ed., The Great Task Remaining Before Us: Reconstruction as America's Continuing Civil War
(2010), p. 9. [149]
[149] Zuczek (2006), Encyclopedia of the Reconstruction Era, A-L, pp. 20, 22.
[150] Sarah E. Gardner, Blood And Irony: Southern White Women's Narratives of the Civil War, 1861–1937 (http://books.google.com/ books?id=-xG7Dfsxya8C&dq=Sara+Pryor&q=Sara+Rice+Pryor#v=onepage&q=Sara Pryor&f=false), University of North Carolina Press, 2006, pp. 128–130.