Reflection-in-action and reflection-on-action

Schon (1983) proposed that in a fast-paced world, professionals need do more than adhere to prescribed techniques learned through formal education and training. He suggests that rational reflection offers professionals a process by which theory within practice can apply, ultimately inspiring professional innovation. In practice this means that when professionals are faced with situations with which they are unfamiliar and for which there is no prescribed solution, reflection offers them a means of making sense such situations through experimentation and the development and testing of theory. Schon (1983) distinguished between reflection-in- action and reflection-on-action. Reflection-in-action occurs during an activity or event; “in the moment” reflection involves thinking about and reacting to situations as these arise. This type of reflection involves professionals reflecting on prior knowledge and understanding as well as the event and taking action which changes the situation and creates a new understanding of it. Schon (1983) suggests that during this process the professional benefits from prior knowledge, but the uniqueness of the situation leads to surprise, confusion and puzzlement because prior knowledge is insufficient to resolve the issue. Professionals must therefore think of and test new actions informed by prior knowledge and their emerging understanding of new situations. A good example of reflection-in-action according to Schon (1983) is how jazz musicians improvise together by making in-the-moment modifications to their own playing based on what they hear from other musicians. They can do this because they make new sense of the music as it changes, reflecting-in action on the music they are producing collaboratively and their unique contribution to it.

Reflection-on-action occurs after an event or activity allowing, professionals time to think about how they and others acted, how successful actions were and any consequences from

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acting differently (Schon, 1983). Post-event, professionals consciously examine their actions to gain insights that inform future practice. This may involve writing in reflective journals and de- briefing with colleagues and/or supervisors. Smith (1994) suggests that when circumstances prohibit answering immediate questions, professionals rely on familiar practices. Reflection-on- action provides necessary space to allow discussion and critical appraisal in collaboration with supervisors and peers of the decisions and approaches they have taken.

Schon’s theories (1983) underpin professional practice in disciplines including nursing, organisational learning, teaching, planning, strategy and management (Yanow and Tsoukas (2009). For example, Grushka, McLeod and Reynolds (2005) proposes reflection-for-action in addition to reflection-in-action and reflection-on-action. This allows professionals to reflect on where they want to “be” in future. Congruent with Schon’s notion of reflection-in-action, Atkins and Murphy’s (1993) reflective model which was developed as a practical approach to promote reflective practice within nursing, recognises the role uncomfortable feelings play in reflective practice. Fish and Coles (1998) suggest health care professionals improvise during unpredictable situations in which no suitable pre-prescribed procedures exist. Clarke, James and Kelly (1996) argue reflection-in-action is central to nursing practice because whilst delivering patient care nurses have to reflect-in-action on theoretical and scientific principles. Yanow and Tsoukas (2009) built on Schon’s work by providing a view of reflection-in-action that demonstrates how improvisation arises in management practices, and by categorising types of surprise experienced by managers during novel events.

Literature on reflection and reflective practice show wide acceptance for the central tenets of Schon’s work and consequently his terminology relating to reflection and reflective practice has grown in popularity (Yanow and Tsoukas, 2009). However, Schon’s proposals have drawn critique. For example, Boud and Walker (1998) criticise the lack of emphasis placed on the role context plays in reflection. They suggest that professional teachers do not always work in institutional contexts that are supportive of honest, critical reflection yet the influence of such strong organisational contexts is often ignored by those who promote reflective practice. Reflection-in-action is also regarded as controversial. Eraut (1995) finds this problematic on the grounds that in situations requiring rapid decision-making, there is insufficient time to engage in meaningful reflection, and thus reflection-in-action is impossible. To reflect, a practitioner must stop the action, even momentarily, to examine former frames of reference. Moon (1999) argues that reflection occurs once an action has been performed and no new action is occurring that involves new information to be understood by the practitioner. Moon (1999) thus supports reflection-on-action only. Ekebergh (2007) argues from a life-world

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phenomenological position, proposing that reflection-in-action is unachievable because reflection can only be achieved by removing oneself and considering a situation retrospectively, not in the moment. Munby and Russell (1989) also question the psychological reality of reflection-in-action. Eraut (1995) suggests that whilst Schon (1983) provided many examples of reflection-on-action, the examples he provided of reflection-in-action were few, occurring in limited contexts.

Schon (1983) has influenced the design of training and education programmes at various educational levels in a range of professional fields. Within this, his ideas have credence in HEWBL. His theories are integral to HEWBL programmes as an effective method of helping learners understand the importance of practical knowledge that is central to professional work (Lester and Costley, 2010). Schon’s theories enable learners to understand organisational cultures in which they learn and work (Roodhouse 2010). Schon’s work has been influenced disciplines in which higher professional learning is an essential part of professional practice such as in education and nursing (Bourner, 2003).