Chapter 3: Research methods
3.4.4 Reflexivity and positionality
Within geography the past few decades have bought about great change in terms of how the relationship between the researcher and researched is perceived and negotiated. Within the discipline it was long believed that researchers should strive for neutrality so as not to ‘taint’ the research with his or her individuality (Moser, 2008). For example, Guelke’s (1974) ‘idealist human geography’ approach viewed the researcher as an empty vessel that simply observed and recorded the ideas of his research subjects (quoted in Moser, 2008). Feminists, post‐modern and poststructural critics of the scientific method in geography challenged these claims of objectivity and neutrality made by researchers
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(McDowell, 1992). As asserted by England (1994), ‘part of the feminist project has been to dismantle the smokescreen surrounding the canons of neopositivist research‐impartiality and objectivist neutrality‐which supposedly prevent the researcher from contaminating the data’ (England, 1994: 81). Feminists argued that all knowledge is ‘embedded, situated, specific and hence partial with an inevitable bias’ (Mohammad, 2001: 103). Objectivity and neutrality were argued to be myths by feminists who argued that claims to these myths served only to make invisible the biases and subjectivity of the information that is collected and coded as knowledge (Mohammad, 2001). Critics such as Haraway (1988) argued that claims to be able to observe from a distance and to see everything from nowhere is a ‘god‐ trick’ as no observers can be neutral and therefore no research can be truly unbiased. McDowell (1992) argued that these challenges have led to an increase in interest in what we do as human geographers as well as how we do it, leading to a shift within the social sciences towards a reflexive notion of knowledge. England (1994) defines reflexivity as ‘self critical sympathetic introspection and the self conscious analytical scrutiny of the self as a researcher’ (p.82) and similarly, Dowling describes it as ‘self‐conscious scrutiny of yourself and the social nature of the research’ (2010: 37). This notion takes into account that any form or type of knowledge depends greatly on the makers and producers of the knowledge itself. Whilst previous research that claimed objectivity and neutrality advocated the belief that any researcher could conduct the same project with the same results there is now awareness that researchers’ positions, personality, biographies and interpretations in fact make this impossible. As noted by Moser (2008), the past two decades have brought a growing recognition that we never shed our identities or biographies to become neutral observers. Whilst we cannot change our positionality, as human geographers we must acknowledge and declare our own positionality in order to assess the impact these factors may have on the research itself (Dowling, 2010). As argued by McDowell (1992), ‘we must recognize and take account of our own position, as well as that of our research participant, and write this into our research practice’ (p.409).
How a researcher is positioned in society by sexual identity, age, social and economic status, gender, ethnicity, education, history, politics and experiences may inhibit or enable particular fieldwork methods and interpretations (Hastrup 1992; Schoenberger, 1992; England 1994). Herod (1993), for example, argued that interviews ‘cannot be conceived as
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taking place in a gender vacuum’ (p.306) and that the gender of the researcher and the participant must be taken into account as it can affect the power relations during an interview (McDowell, 1992; Schoenberger, 1992). The researcher’s positionality can also determine the level of trust and types of power relations that develop between the researcher and participants which can go on to create advantages and disadvantages in the research process (Mullings, 1999). Mullings (1999) stated that recognizing and naming uncertainties created through identities and power relations is an important step towards not only establishing rigor in the research process, but also towards displacing the indomitable authority of the author.
Closely related to the issue of positionality is the researcher’s position as an ‘insider’ or an ‘outsider’ to the research population. The benefits and drawbacks of both positions have been debated. Dowling (2010) described an insider as someone who is similar to his or her informants whereas an outsider is different. Dowling (2010) suggests that as a researcher you are never simply either an insider or outsider as we have overlapping racial, socio‐ economic, gender, ethnic and other characteristics, as do informants. There are therefore many points of similarity or dissimilarity that may be present between the researcher and informant (Dowling, 2010: 36).
In this study, the positionality of the researcher in terms of age, gender and background were taken into account. As a research student of similar age to the participants, the same nationality (in most cases) and also with similar socio‐economic and educational backgrounds this situated the researcher as an ‘insider’ in many ways to the research population. The researcher had also previously spent time studying abroad although not as an undergraduate student, or through the Erasmus programme. The researcher studied abroad during secondary education, for a period of one year, in Lusaka, Zambia. This information was only revealed when requested by ten of the interviewees. In terms of the interviews with students from Loughborough University, the researcher and participant had also studied at the same university and in a few cases in the same academic year. The researcher could therefore be seen as an insider in many ways; however, it is important to note that the researcher did not know any of the interviewees or share any mutual friends.
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Winchester (1996) argued that ‘power relations influence both the access to target groups and the structure and conduct of the interview’ (p.122). It is believed that the researcher’s position as an ‘insider’ was a benefit as power relations were not an issue with the researcher and participants being very much equal. This allowed the researcher to access the target group, and interviewees appeared comfortable talking to the researcher about their experiences. Being an insider can also allow trust to develop between the researcher and participants, while being an outsider can create problems in establishing trust (Mullings, 1999). It has also been argued that as an insider the information collected and the interpretation of the data completed is more valid than of an outsider (Dowling, 2010). As an insider, participants are possibly more likely to talk to the researcher if they feel they have something in common or that they have a shared experience in some way with the researcher. This may also lead to participants speaking more freely about their experiences and may also allow a better rapport to develop between the participant and researcher than if the researcher was an outsider.
Flowerdew and Martin (2005) stated that ‘sharing the same background or a similar identity to your informant can have a positive effect, facilitating the development of a rapport between interviewer and interviewee thus producing a rich, detailed conversation based on empathy and mutual respect and understanding’ (p.113). This appeared to be the case in this research as students were keen to help the researcher with many commenting that they know how hard it can be to find willing participants from their own experiences of conducting research for their studies. Students from Loughborough were very keen to take part in the research, which is evident in the fact that although Loughborough had the lowest outgoing Erasmus work placement level of all eight universities included, it was the university from which the highest number of interviewees were recruited. The researcher’s position as a current Loughborough postgraduate student therefore appeared to play an influential role in students’ decisions to take part in the study.
It is not only research positionality which can affect research findings but also researcher personality. Moser (2008) highlighted that despite the increase in interest of the issue of positionality the related issue of researcher personality has not been a consideration despite its profound ability to shape both the research process and product. Moser found that whilst conducting fieldwork in Indonesia her positionality as a white, female,
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Canadian, middle class graduate student were quickly diminished as aspects of her personality became the main factor used by locals to judge her. Aspects of personality such as the way in which Moser conducted herself and her social skills controlled access to certain groups and the level to which participants opened up during the research process. Moser therefore found that her personality affected not only the research process but also the information gathered whilst in the field and ultimately had a great impact on the research as a whole. Whilst Moser (2008) does not deny the importance of positionality the issue of researcher personality is outlined as an area that has not yet been fully explored in existing literature focusing on research methods in geography.
As discussed by Tembo (2003), occupying certain positions and being aware of them may encourage researchers to take up projects that will place them at an advantage as an ‘insider’. In a sense, this was the case with this research study as the researcher had personal experience of studying abroad which had initially encouraged and influenced the researcher to conduct the research. Without the personal experience of studying abroad, the researcher may have had no knowledge or interest in the area of research and therefore the position of being an insider created the study initially.
Although reflexivity and positionality have become important issues within geography in recent years it has been suggested that calls for this type of reflexivity may be ambitious (Rose, 1997). Rose argued that researchers cannot be fully aware of, or articulate, their own self‐positioning. Rose (1997) discussed the difficulties in being reflexive in practice and argued that certain types of reflexivity are in fact impossible to achieve. Smith (2001) and Shurmer‐Smith (2001) shared a similar view (quoted in Limb and Dwyer, 2001) arguing that too much self reflection may make the final written text of a research project both exclusionary and self‐justified or self‐centred. In Bourdieu’s (2003) discussion of ‘participant objectivation’ this is described as ‘the objectivation of the subject of objectivation, of the analysis subject – in short, of the researcher herself’ (p.282) with which he too expressed concern for an excess of reflectivity. Winchester and Rofe (2010) stated that Bourdieu (2003) emphasized the crisis of representation, which they describe as ‘the conundrum of celebrating the subjective nature of the social world while striving to ground this very subjectivity in objectivity’ (p.16).
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