MODULE 2
The process of motivation starts with a perceived need which creates tension in the individual, such individual will move in a certain direction in order to achieve the desired objective which reduces the tension, i.e.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1
Identify four key words in the definition of motivation.
3.2 The Underlying Principles of Motivation
1. One man’s meat is another man’s poison. What motivates Mr. A may not motivate Mr. B.
2. The complexity of man. He has a variety of needs and he is difficult to satisfy.
3. A satisfied need no longer motivates
4. To ensure high level of motivation, there must be some degree of freedom in the place of work.
5. Human needs exist in hierarchy as categorized into five steps by Maslow.
However, there are theories that indicate that human needs are not satisfied in hierarchical order.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2
Which of the principles of motivation emphasize individual differences and the importance of work environment?
3.3 Theories of Motivation
There are various theories of motivation, some of which are considered as follows:
3.3.1 Maslow’s Theory
According to Maslow’s theory of motivation, human needs can be classified in a hierarchical order starting from the basic needs to the higher order needs. Maslow maintained that when a lower need is satisfied, a higher need becomes activated and as higher need is satisfied, the lower need is no longer a motivator.
According to Maslow, human needs can be classified into five, namely, the physiological needs, safety needs, social needs, esteem needs, and self actualization needs.
Physiological needs: These needs consist of food, clothing and shelter which are considered basic for the survival of human beings. These needs can be satisfied with money where they are satisfied, they become motivators. At this stage, every kobo means much to the employee in an organization. Other needs become important as soon as physiological needs are satisfied.
Reduction of tension (satisfaction need)
Need Goal
oriented
Tension Motivatin g
Behaviour
Safety needs: When the physiological needs must have been satisfied, the safety needs become important to human beings. These needs consist of job security, protection from danger, illness and economic disaster, freedom from fear, etc.
As soon as these needs are satisfied, they give way for the social needs.
Social needs: They consist of belongingness, association, acceptance, friendship and love. In an attempt to satisfy these needs, individual member in an o rganization belong to small clubs of informal groups, unions and so on.
Esteem needs: These needs consist of recognition, self-respect, accomplishment, confidence, power and prestige. They do not become motivator unless other lower level needs have been satisfied.
Self-actualization needs: These are also known as fulfillment needs. They are the topmost needs in Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Model. According to Maslow
“What a man can be, he must be”. A man is actualized when he feels he has achieved his full potentials. Human beings are ambitious and would attempt to become whatever they feel they can become. In other words, everybody has the belief that the potentials are there for them to rise to any level.
3.3.2 Herberg two-factor theory
Herzberg (1968) identified two-factor theory which he named the Dissatisfiers/Hygiene and the Satisfiers/Motivators.
Dissatisfiers/hygiene factors (maintenance factors) These factors consist of:
Ø Relationship with supervisor Ø Working condition
Ø Relationship with peers Ø Personal life
Ø Compensation (money)
These factors according to Herzberg are dissatisfiers and not motivators because their existence does not motivate but their absence leads to dissatisfaction. Herzberg and his associates observed that an improvement in the hygiene factors through good company, politics and administration, good supervision, good working condition, good interpersonal relations and good remuneration would prevent workers from being dissatisfied with their jobs. Herzberg felt that the hygiene factors were important as “house keeping chores” that must be done as their absence would not allow motivators to work.
Disatisfiers/Hygiene Factors (Maintenance Factors): These factors consist of:
i. Achievement ii. Working condition iii. Relationship with peers iv. Personal life
v. Compensation (money)
These factors according to Herzberg are dissatisfiers and not motivators because their existence does not motivate but their absence leads to dissatisfaction. Herzberg and his associates observed that an improvement in the hygiene factors through good company, politics and administration, good supervision, good working condition, good interpersonal relations and good remuneration would prevent workers from being dissatisfied with their jobs. Herzberg felt that the hygiene factors were important as “house keeping chores” that must be done as their absence would not allow motivators to work.
Satisfiers/Motivators: According to Herzberg, the motivators or satisfiers consist of:
i. Achievement ii. Recognition iii. Responsibility iv. Advancement v. Work itself
The existence of these factors will bring about a feeling of satisfaction or not satisfaction but not dissatisfaction.
3.3.3 Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
This theory was propounded by Victor Vroom. It states that what an individual expects to get out of the efforts put into the output of something will determine the strength or efforts put into it.
Components of the Theory
i. Expectancy: This means the expectation of the individual that an exhibited behaviour would be followed by a specific outcome. For instance, if a worker feels that he works hard in a particular year, he will be promoted, he will put more effort into his job.
ii. The valence: This means the strength or the amount of efforts put into the achievement of an outcome.
iii. The outcome: This is the combination of both inwardly and outwardly expressed behaviour. Therefore, to sum up motivation according to Vroom:
M = E x V = Outcome
It must be noted that the relationship between expectancy (E) and Valence (V) is positive, the higher the E, the higher the V; the lower the E, the lower the V. To this end, both the Expectancy (E) and Valence (V) must be raised high in order to motivate individuals. Nevertheless, the caution here is the outcome, if Expectancy and Valence are high, the Outcome must be kept high so that individual will be motivated. For instance, a worker expects that after a stipulated time, he would be promoted, he now puts more efforts to earn his promotion, but if at the expected time, the promotion is not forthcoming, this will now reduce his efforts.
3.3.4 Carrot and Stick Model:
This model emphasized rewards and punishment approach in motivating individuals in an organization. According to this model, incentives like praises and penalties like
sanctions can be used to influence the behaviour of individuals, while praises could serve as positive reinforcers, penalties could serve as negative reinforcers. To apply this model, individual workers or staff in the school could be praised, commended and be given higher responsibilities in order to motivate them as these could reinforce them positively on their jobs. On the other hand, when the staff in the school are not performing on their jobs, sanctions and punishment such as threat of sack, demotion, suspension and withdrawal of privileges could be used as checks particularly if applied in the right dose, to reinforce them negatively in order to perform on their jobs.
3.3.5 McGregor’s Theories X and Y
McGregor (1960) proposed two theories namely the X and theory Y which aimed at providing a framework for the management of people in order to accomplish organizational goals. In these theories, basic assumptions were made, the understanding of which is important in managing human beings.
Theory X
The basic assumptions of theory X are:
1. Work, if not downright distasteful, is an onerous chore to be performed in order to survive.
2. The average human being has an inherent dislike of work, and will avoid it if he can.
3. Because of this human characteristic dislike of work, most people must be coerced, controlled, directed or threatened with punishment to get them to put forth adequate effort toward the achievement of organizational objectives.
4. The average human being prefers to be directed, wishes to avoid responsibility, has relative little ambition, wants security above all.
Managers who subscribe to Theory X are often autocratic and task-oriented in their approach. Such managers usually believe that a worker has a special dislike for work and unless you force him, he will not work. To this end, he has to be threatened with loss of employment (security need) in order to make him do his work. The emphasis here is on negative reinforcement as a means of motivation. Nevertheless, McGregor believed that the continuing use of Theory X in management prevents the managers from discovering and utilizing the best potentials of the average worker.
School administrators who believe in theory X will drive and compel teachers to teach, promise them rapid promotion and improved conditions of service in order to inspire them to work hard. Teachers who do not perform well on the job will be threatened with punishment. Teachers are not adequately involved in decision making and all the activities of the school will be strictly controlled by the school administrator and staff and students are thoroughly supervised.
Theory Y
The basic assumptions of Theory Y are:
1. The expenditure of physical energy and mental effort in work is as natural as play or rest.
2. External control and the threat of punishment are not only means for bringing about effort towards organization’s objectives. Man will exercise self-direction and self-control in the service of objectives to which he is committed.
3. Commitment to objectives is a function of the rewards associated with their achievement.
4. The average human being learns, under proper conditions, not only to accept but seek responsibility.
5. The capacity to exercise a relatively high degree of imagination, ingenuity and creativity in the solution of organizational problems is widely, not narrowly disturbed in the population.
6. Under the conditions of modern life, the intellectual potentialities of the average human being are only partially utilized.
Managers who subscribe to theory Y usually believe that people will work naturally, exercise self direction, self discipline and self control in certain circumstances, and have potentials for further development, as long they are rewarded in one way or the other. Theory Y emphasizes the need for job enrichment and job satisfaction.
School administrator who operates under the assumptions of theory Y will provide leadership and motivate staff. Such administrator usually runs open administration which makes the school environment conducive for staff to do their jobs. Teachers and other non-teaching staff are involved in decision making and there are opportunities for innovations, self direction, self discipline and self control for the staff.
Theories X and Y can be successfully used by school administrators by adhering to the suggested administrative policies by Watson (1966) which are summarized as follows:
Theory X