Produce fertilizer
6 Conclusions and recommendations
6.3 Research conclusions
The key finding as well as the overall conclusions can be found in the following sections. These findings were drawn in fulfilment of answering the two research questions posed at the onset of this research.
The research questions were as follows:
1. Which method(s) of urine treatment are best suited for maximum resource recovery, and what state of urine (fresh or hydrolyzed) is most conducive for achieving this?
2. If highly frequented locations such as shopping malls and universities are targeted for installation of nutrient recovery urinals, how would the urine be collected and what are the viable market avenues for the sale and use of urine derived fertilizers?
6.3.1 Design charts assessment
As part of the review of literature, that ultimately culminated in the creation of the urine treatment design charts in Chapter 4, the first research question was addressed in response to the first hypothesis. The first hypothesis for this research was as follows:
Urine stabilization by calcium hydroxide addition, together with reverse osmosis for volume reduction, is the most effective treatment scheme because it recovers all the nutrients.
The main findings of this investigation in Chapter 4 were that:
Due to urea hydrolysis, hydrolyzed urine cannot hold the same potential for nitrogen recovery as fresh urine, based solely on the quantity of nitrogen that can be recovered.
Although both acid stabilization and base stabilization can prevent urea hydrolysis, acid presents a safety hazard for untrained personnel, decreasing its overall appeal if stabilization of urine in public spaces is to be considered.
Reverse osmosis, evaporation and freeze concentration were considered as volume reduction methods for urine. Literature indicates that RO potentially offers a cheaper and less complex method of water removal for a similar nutrient concentration, when compared to evaporation and freeze concentration. Therefore, RO was the preferred volume reduction option.
It was thus concluded that a combination of calcium hydroxide dosing and RO volume reduction was the best process sequence for maximum recovery, as hypothesised. This treatment sequence can potentially produce a solid calcium phosphate fertilizer, as well as a liquid nitrogen‐based fertilizer with a 3.3 ‐ 0 ‐ 0.8 NPK rating. Therefore, the nitrogen composition of this liquid fertilizer could potentially be comparable to that of commercially available liquid fertilizers.
6.3.2 Decentralized urine treatment assessment
The second research question was addressed in Chapter 5, in response to the second hypothesis. The second hypothesis for this research was as follows:
Decentralized urine treatment, which incorporates nutrient recovery in the form of fertilizer production, is profitable when large volumes of urine are collected and processed at a decentralized resource recovery facility. Moreover, this system produces lower GHG emissions and has a lower energy expenditure when compared with conventional WWT systems.
The main findings of this investigation in Chapter 5 were that:
Weight limitations pertaining to the transportation of urine presented an issue and required several iterations to solve the travelling salesman problem for low levels of decentralization.
Despite this, transportation and logistics only contributed between 2% and 6% of the OPEX across each design scenario. In small and densely populated areas, like Cape Town, short travel distances are experienced. This directly reduces the effect of routing from an economic perspective. Therefore, the level of success that can be experienced from such a system would likely be dependent on the geospatial configuration of the chosen area.
Increasing the degree of decentralization, while the collection locations and urine collected remained constant, had an inversely proportionate effect on travel distance in this model. This was because the weight restrictions of the trucks decreased as the number of RRFs increased, which meant all collection locations were only required to be visited once per week. However, the difference in travel distance of successive degrees of decentralization appears to reduce.
Chipako, T.L (2019) Chapter 6: Conclusions and recommendations
It was found that the most appealing scenario, from a financial perspective, incorporated the use of a 4‐ton truck and one RRF (scenario one). Although the OPEX was found to be similar, the GHG emissions and energy expenditure for scenario one were more favourable than that of conventional WWT. Moreover, scenario one offered the added benefit of resource recovery from urine, while potentially decreasing hydraulic loads to WWTPs. However, a globally optimal solution which incorporated the minimum operating cost, minimum travel distance and minimum GHG emissions, amongst the design scenarios was not possible. This was because increasing the number of RRFs installed increased the OPEX but resulted in a decrease in GHG emissions due to a decrease in travel distance.
A positive net present value was realised over an investment period of five years for each level of decentralization investigated. An NPV of R38.3 million was achieved for scenario one. When assessing the sensitivity of the proposed design, the selling price of liquid fertilizer required to break‐even was as low as R22.75/L of fertilizer, if all recovered fertilizer is sold. Moreover, when selling at the chosen design selling price, only approximately 15% of the total producible liquid fertilizer would need to be sold to break even, for scenario one.
It was assumed that plant nurseries would offer the most applicable medium for the sale of niche fertilizer products. However, the vineyards that surround the City of Cape Town could and continue to work towards the sustainability goals outlined by the United Nations (UN, 2015).
Moreover, the amalgamation of geospatial analysis and source‐separated urine treatment could prove to be a powerful tool for optimizing the feasibility of decentralized waste management at high resolution in the future.